Biodiversity Conservation - Challenges for the Future

Snakes are ecologically significant reptilian groups, but very little measures have been taken towards exploring their diversity. Kerala, located at the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent has a countable richness in snake species, approximately 104 species including endangered and endemic species. Even though there is an abundance of species diversity, a critical turn down in the population of many snake species has been encountered and it is necessary to tackle this threat of decline in population. Snakes as a whole have very little commercial value as compared with other group of animals. The various ways in which they are exploited tend to be limited to specific regions or to a few species. In addition to exploitation, habitat destruction and pollution are the most serious threats affecting their diversity. The physical structure and thermal properties of the inhabiting sites are crucial to these ectothermic creatures; and so the continuous decline in the quality of habitat is the fundamental cause that makes these species vulnerable. Extended analysis of species-habitat associationship is crucial for effectual and targeted conservation planning and management. The critical limitation found in conservation planning is the nonavailability of statistics on population size of individual species and their habitat requirements. This chapter provides an overview of the distribution and the ecological status of snake species in Kerala and also highlights the threats and possible conservation strategies for protecting their diversity.

Sustainable harvest of Medicinal and Aromatic species should become an important conservation strategy for the long term survivability of medicinal plant resources. Presently medicinal plants are mainly collected from the wild (90%) and 70% is through destructive harvesting. This paper presents a community model policy involving Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP) Resource management by Local Self Government (LSG) & Biodiversity Management Committee (BMC), which will ensure sustainable utilization of medicinal plants and fair benefit sharing. Stricter enforcement of biodiversity legislations and mandatory registration for collectors from wild and herbal shops is recommended with proper inventory, and monitoring of harvesting impacts. Focus is on strengthening LSG & BMC for Resource Management and formation of medicinal plants trading society. The collected materials are to be properly tagged with local and trade name, and source of collection in order to support traceability to collection area. It is recommended that Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) certification should be linked with traceability of MAP and the development of Live Green label for materials harvested sustainably is proposed. Sustainable harvesting of MAP is intricately connected with conservation of unique habitats benefitting the local ecosystem greatly and facilitates development of a strong sense of stewardship in the communities which would help in sustainable management of the habitats and biodiversity conservation at the same time ensuring rural livelihood.

India has the pride of being one among the few mega-biodiversity countries of the world. Whereas its land area is limited to 2.4%, it has 7-8% of the total number of species so far recorded, of which about 45,500 species are plants and 91,000 species are animals. As reported in 2007, among the 5150 amphibian species recorded, 240 are present in India, which accounts for 4.66%. Unfortunately, the amphibians, which survived all the four mass extinctions since their origin, have been projected to be facing extinction at the global scale in the ongoing/envisaged sixth mass extinction. Many amphibians species have been declared in the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 as protected, and included in the different schedules reflecting different levels of threat. Frogs that are commonly used for dissection and experiments in India are included in Schedule IV of this Act. This means that holding of these frogs in captivity and/or use for any purpose including as delicacy without the permission from the local Chief Wild Life Warden is a punishable offence.

The chapter highlights the ancient and modern concepts/strategies of biodiversity conservation through people’s participation both at in-situ and ex-situ level and also focuses on the significance and sector wise thrust areas of Traditional Knowledge (TK) including their protection. A development paradigm, which is not exclusively in the hands of the professionals and technologists, but with the local people should be developed. The need for systematic documentation of TK using prior informed consent, legal protection of TK, database inventory (defensive protection), exclusive rights of the beneficiaries, complementary protective measures and protection by signing contractual agreement with knowledge holders/providers and future strategies and action plan to be implemented through the people’s participation in management of biodiversity are discussed in detail.

Crop and livestock genetic resource conservation must be strengthened. Botanic gardens, zoological parks and public aquaria must be strengthened. Human Capacity to Conserve Biodiversity must be improved. Global biodiversity information network has to be established. Basic and applied research on biodiversity conservation must be promoted. Increased public participation, respect for basic human rights and improved access to education and information are essential elements of biodiversity conservation. The costs and benefits of biodiversity conservation should be shared equitably among nations and people.

Natural bioresources refers to all kinds of naturally occurring resources of biological origin. Biodiversity or biological diversity refers to the diversity of any kind of living organisms that exists in that particular area, region and country or on the earth. The North Eastern region of India comprises of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Mizoram, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura. This region of India is rich in biodiversity due to high rainfall and plenty of sunlight. This region can be addressed as the geographical ‘gateway’ for endemic flora as well as fauna. This area is one of the richest biomes of the world, endowed with a wide range of ecological conditions ranging from low lying areas of Assam to Kanchenzanga of Sikkim. The North East India represents a wide range of forests ranging from tropical to sub – tropical, temperate to alpine regions. Forests of this region consist of a huge number of endemic plants and animals. Two UNESCO World heritage sites namely, Kaziranga and Manas are also located in the North East belt (Report UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UK). However, the valuable resources of this part of the country is depleting at an alarming rate due to unavoidable human activities, colonization, urbanization, agriculture, mining, transport, and technology. The natural hazards like floods, landslides are also adding to the loss of biodiversity. The conservation of the resources and their proper utilization with the modern techniques have long been realized in the region and it still requires scientific intervention and concerted efforts to ensure sustainable use of these resources and livelihood security.

The harmony between human and nature is maintained through civilizations by practicing reverence, recognition and appreciation. Nature has been worshipped and the anthropogenic arrogance of excessive use of natural resources has been prohibited or else mankind has faced the vagaries of nature. The communities have considered biodiversity as one of the important aspects of sustainability of mankind and have marked landscapes with mythological importance as sacred groves. The patches of dense vegetation or natural areas which have ethnic and religious values are known as sacred groves. These sacred groves are protected by communities through local taboos and sanctions. In sacred groves a range of traditions and cultural values are manifested. Traditionally, wild species were protected and conserved in the sacred groves with often strict penalties for breaking customary laws on the use of resources within the groves. In Himachal Pradesh, the sacred groves are called Dev Van or Devta Ka Jungle and are dedicated to a particular deity. The paradigm shift in customary practices and modernization has threatened the future of these sacred groves. There is a need to exercise ethical concern towards these landscapes of rich biological diversity. A holistic approach, cutting across multidisciplinary subjects has been adapted to document sacred groves. A total of 514 sacred groves have been documented considering biodiversity, culture, religion and history of the landscapes.

Indian gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus gaurus) is a wild bovid. It is categorized as vulnerable in the IUCN Red list of threatened species, 2009 and listed in schedule-1 of Indian wildlife (protection) act, 1972. The present population density and conservation status of gaur in Tripura was studied. Trishna wildlife sanctuary, popularly known as “Eden of Bison”, is situated in the South Tripura district. It is home to five primate species, namely, Spectacled langur (Trachypithecus phayrie), Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), Pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemtsetrina) Capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus) and Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock). Physical characters and feeding behaviour of gaur are recorded. Direct counting of stratified block count method was followed to assess the population strength of gaur. The whole sanctuary was stratified into three habitats, in situ., dense forest, degraded forest and bushy forest. Counts of sample blocks of the three strata were recorded and total population of the sanctuary was found to be 255±139. Stratum-wise population density was calculated to be 0.99, 1.67 and 1.88 for dense forest, degraded forest and bushy forest respectively. Many conservation measures are taken up by the Forest department to protect this species and its habitat. However, some anthropogenic threats and adverse effects of global warming on gaur are recorded. Further measures are recommended to conserve Indian gaur and its habitat for the benefit of future generations.

Bos indicus, (Vechur breed), being an indigenous cow of Kerala needs greater attention for its survival since the breed is facing extinction. Due to the lack of appropriate scientific studies for highlighting the therapeutic potential of the milk of Vechur cow and its unique medicinal properties, this critical breed has not gained sufficient and required acceptance among farmers and it became a negative factor for the conservation of this domestic animal. Most of the traditional concepts associated with Vechur cow like disease resistance, medicinal property of milk have remained as mere field observations since the authenticity of these features has not yet been proven successfully with solid evidence. Hence the existence of Vechur cow in the livestock industry is still a questionable matter. The data of the present study on the structural and functional features of the lactoferrin gene of the Vechur cow demonstrates SNPs, amino acid substitutions, binding pockets and the secondary and tertiary structure of the gene compared to Bos taurus. Along with the genomic features, the gene was successfully expressed for the production of recombinant Bovine lactoferrin protein (rBLf) in eukaryotic system using a Pore2 vector and CAMV35S promoter. The bactericidal property exhibited by rBLf protein in suppressing the growth of both gram positive and gram negative bacterial strains viz. E.coli, Streptococcus sps, and Staphylococcus aureus has highlighted the relevance of lactoferrin protein of Vechur cow milk in drug industry.

A good collection of seeds symbolizes rich biodiversity and being viable, they signalize the continuity of life and prosperity of a nation. India, is bio-rich in terms of species holdings. In India, policies like Seed bill 2004, ascertain right over indigenous seeds. Seed listing based on their prevalent status is a basic requisite for conservation. The Seed bank of Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (JNTBGRI) maintains 4000 seed accessions including 1055 active; 35 base and remaining reference collections as precious futuristic germplasm holdings. Thirty seven seed samples were enlisted on the basis of their systematic and conservation status. Twenty seven species are found to be recalcitrant; eight of them orthodox while two of them are intermediate type. Though the seed recalcitrance is preeminent, certain specific habitat adaptive traits favour extended storage. Case study reported on Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robson indicated the prevalence of coat imposed physical dormancy. Role of three testa layers which could be evaded by mechanical scarification for enhancing the six month 74% initial germination rate to more than 90% within two months also compliment the durability of seeds. In brief, seeds can be categorized in a way to enable stored accessions remain viable for futuristic breeding programmes.

Studies were conducted on two rattan species of the North East India, Calamus flagellum Griff. ex Mart. and C. floribundus Griff. (Arecaceae), to know the nutrient value of the shoots. In general, the rattan species studied contain considerable amounts of protein, carbohydrate, fibres, vitamins and minerals. When compared to other palm shoots and bamboo shoots the level of sodium and fat are very low. The level of Vitamin B complex was at par with other leafy vegetables and bamboo species. Phosphorous content was also more in rattans than in the leafy vegetables. Nutritional features of rattan shoots make them an excellent source of dietary supplements to local people. The rattans can be promoted among farmers as under storey crops in an agroforestry system and in shifting cultivation to provide enhanced livelihood options. Large scale cultivation of edible Rattans with community participation will reduce the pressures on harvesting from the wild and promote conservation of the rich diversity of Rattans in India.

From the chemical input-intensive yield-enhancement practices of the Green Revolution era, agricultural research and development focus is gradually shifting towards establishing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in fruits and vegetable sector. The dominant problems affecting fruits and vegetables in terms of safety is presence of pesticide residues. Globally, authorities have long highlighted this risk and imposed appropriate maximal limits of residues (MLRs). In spite of imposing MLRs in fresh vegetables, negative health effects of pesticides residue in consumers have been increasingly reported from states of India like Kerala. Along with other factors, food quality and safety declination resulting from inappropriate chemicals and pesticide use during crop production is widely documented as one of the root-causes of the health issues. The weak quality assurance schemes in developing countries impede smallholders’ inclusion in high value chains due to imperfect institutional and governance arrangements throughout the system. Apparently, erstwhile studies have emphasized the significance of collective action among smallholders as a solution to the above constraints. However, past studies on vegetable production in India are either from a horticultural and entomological perspective on increasing production and productivity, pest management or on cost of cultivation and those solely from an econometric, institutional and collective action perspective have been hardly studied. Still lesser are studies understanding the inter-linkages between smallholders’ collective action and pesticides risk reduction in vegetable production of India. In this backdrop, the current study examines various econometric models and suggests suitable models to assess the institutional mechanisms on improving environmental and economic performance of vegetable production in India under collective action.

Rice wetland being highly fragile, the adverse effects of input intensive farming are prominent and far-reaching which questions the very existence of human race in this planet. Moreover, these practices are leading to extinction of many valuable flora and fauna. With the intension to study the effect of input intensive farming on the faunal and floral population associated with the rice fields, perception of farmers on enrichment of biodiversity by way of adopting eco-friendly farming was recorded. The investigation was undertaken in the Palakkad district, Kerala. A total of 40 beneficiary farmers were selected from the study area. The dimension was measured by using an interview schedule developed by the researcher for the purpose. To support this study on perception of farmers’, major organisms constituting the rice ecosystem were identified and documented by taking photographs. Elderly farmers were contacted with these photos to collect information on the variation in the diversity over the years. The study reveals that majority of the respondents (62.5%) perceived biodiversity enrichment as a major social benefit of eco-friendly farming. Most of these farmers opined that reduced use of chemical inputs and avoiding poaching in eco-friendly farming leads to conservation of biodiversity in this eco-system. 37.5 per cent respondents attributed biodiversity changes to other factors like climate change and other human interventions, besides eco-friendly cultivation. A list of the flora and fauna seen in rice fields and its population variation over years was recorded as a part of the study. As high external input agriculture has been proven to be unsustainable, ensuring food security requires a shift towards low external input/eco-friendly agriculture, which would maintain input-output cycles as well as the ecosystem balance.

One of the major concepts of conservation of biodiversity on the International and National level is “equitable sharing of benefits arising out of uses of genetic resources”. The main instrument for ensuring this in India is documenting biodiversity along with traditional knowledge in the form of People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR). The PBR database reveals that a large number of Traditional Rice Varieties are being maintained, till date, by the farmers on their own. It is reported that 467 traditional varieties are still in cultivation in the fields of West Bengal, against a number of nearly 5000 that existed 50 years back in the state. Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Right (PPV&FR) Act 2001 [1] offers rights to the farmers that is akin to some degree to Biological Diversity Act, 2002. West Bengal Biodiversity Board has taken initiative to build synergy between these two Acts. As per Section 14-19 of the PPV & FR Act, the process of registration of varieties in the name of concerned farmer/group of farmers from different parts of the state has been initiated which would provide them a right to get adequate compensation from those who develop the new varieties for commercial benefits using the traditional ones. These two complementary acts may change the scenario of “Access and Benefit Sharing” provisions, particularly in the agricultural sector.

One of the key elements of the Strategic Plan on Biodiversity Conservation and the Aichi Targets adopted by the Conference of Parties in the Tenth Session at Aichi Nagoya has been the issue of resource mobilization for Biodiversity Conservation. Resource mobilization for biodiversity conservation calls for deployment of economic instruments that mobilize resources and /or secure corrective behavior that facilitates biodiversity conservation in mega-diversity countries such as India. The paper looks at the concept of economic incentives and its role in biodiversity conservation through creative use of economic instruments. The backdrop chosen for the analysis is India. After delving into the different types of economic incentives in relation to their biodiversity impacts, the paper looks at how different fiscal and non fiscal instruments, including taxes, cess and related imposts can be combined with price and non price incentives and dedicated funds to create conditions for promoting conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity resources. The main argument advanced in this paper is that, apart from dedicated environmental fiscal and non fiscal instruments, it is possible to utilize existing fiscal instruments, including conventional direct and indirect taxes, by re-orienting their focus to securing positive biodiversity outcomes. The paper summarizes its findings by linking these concepts to valuation exercises conducted under the auspices of The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) in India and elsewhere and the proposed novel trading instruments such as Biodiversity Off sets proposed in various economic and environmental forums.

Environmental economics is a multi-disciplinary area of academic studies that focuses on the interface between developmental economics and natural ecosystems. Ecology and economics have originated from the same etymology. Environmental economics generally deals with the conservation of natural resources and its effective use in attaining sustainable development. Hence the issues related to the environment are inextricably interwoven to economic issues. Green economics has assumed greater importance in recent times. Greening the globe assumes more importance than the growth of the economy. The concerns of the corporate world on environment has achieved greater attention in the period of rapid population growth, lavish consumerism, urbanization, industrialization and advances in technology coupled with exploitation of resources. Unending consumption will not give unending satisfaction or happiness. The challenge before man is to secure happiness without increasing the level of exploitation, the scale of production and the rate of consumption.

Measuring biodiversity has been a challenge in valuing and developing quantitative indicators for its management and conservation. The faunal and floral species diversity and richness makes the south west of India one of the hot spots of biodiversity as well as an area of important multispecies fisheries. Among the 118 species of sea weeds reported, majority belong to the family Rhodomelaceae (13), followed by Caulerpaceae (10), Cladophoraceae (6), Ulvaceae (5), Dictyotaceae (5). A total of 730 molluscan species were enlisted from southwest coast which include 515 species of gastropods, 171 species of bivalves, 28 species of cephalopods and 14 species of scaphopods. Crustacean diversity is shown by the presence of 218 species including 152 species of crabs, 57 species of shrimps and 9 species of lobsters. 950 fish species occur along the coast of which 800 species are landed in commercial fishery. Total fish landings from the area were about 1.187 million tonnes. Marine fish landings from Kerala was 7.43 lakh tonnes of which more than 50% was contributed by oil sardine, mackerel, threadfin breams, carangids and penaeid prawns. Out of the 21871 fishing crafts along Kerala coast 3768 are trawlers, 60 purse seiners, 460 gillnetters and 495 ring seiners. The value estimated for the ecosystem services and natural capital of Kerala coast is of US $ 1660-1930 billion per year from an area of 260101 km² which includes brackish water, estuaries and Open Ocean.

Mainly seven species of turtles are reported across the world, out of which five are found in India, and four - Olive Ridley (most common), Green Turtle, Leatherback and Hawksbill have been sighted from the 9 coastal districts of Kerala. This study identifies the major beaches along the Kerala coast where turtles have been sighted, their nesting areas, and threats to their survival and current efforts taken to conserve them. Field surveys, interacting with the coastal people and liaising with local conservation groups were conducted. The coastal belt of Kasargod has the largest density of marine turtles followed by Kozhikode and Thrissur. The year 2010 saw a 70% surge in turtle landings in these regions over the previous year due to the continual efforts of local conservation groups – Naithal. Many turtles trapped in fishing nets die and sometimes the fishermen kill the live ones for meat or as revenge for destroying the nets. Beach erosion and coastal afforestation and burgeoning coastal development in the form of ports, sea walls, fishing harbours and tourism are major threats to turtle habitats and nesting sites. The study recommends awareness campaigns for turtle conservation, banning illegal sale of meat and eggs, initiating Coastal Eco Development Committees, diligent afforestation, shoreline protection using geo-textiling, curbing contamination of coastal area by waste dumping and industrial drains and co-ordination between the concerned authorities for better vigilance of beach sand mining, illegal trawling, etc.

Synchronous flashing of a large congregation of fireflies observed at Varagaliar, located in the Anamalai Tiger Reserve in the Tamil Nadu part of Western Ghats (10°25.09' N, 76°51.94' E, Elevation 2100 ft) is reported here. Typically, the fireflies on the topmost part of the tree crown flash a yellowish green light, almost immediately followed by similar light flashes serially by the fireflies below. The flashing pattern in each tree repeated itself cyclically, and other neighbouring trees had similar but unique synchronous displays. After a few cycles, fireflies in all the trees flash three times in unison as if appreciating their spectacular performance. The whole forest landscape resonated with pulsating waves of multiple kaleidoscopic flashes of light from several clusters of fireflies until dawn. This annual spectacle is observed only during the month of April, before the onset of the south-west monsoon, perhaps coinciding with the mating season of the adult insect that lives for about a month. Synchronous fireflies have also been reported elsewhere from Southeast Asia, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Elkmont, USA, and Brazil. Conserving this unique phenomenon at Varagaliar for posterity, necessitates a better understanding of the species composition of the fireflies involved in this phenomenon, the reasons for their synchronous behaviour, the geographical area that is congregated by these insects, the unique plant species composition, and the ecology and ecoclimate of this habitat that makes it an exclusive niche for congregation of synchronous fireflies.

Kerala has a rich heritage of plant diversity and health traditions. The history of drug discovery reveals that the ethno-botanical approach is one of the most productive methods to screen bioactive compounds. Many drugs currently in use were developed after scientists began to analyze the chemical constituents of plants. Exploration of the medicinal uses of plants from traditional knowledge coupled to scientific research methodologies may be able to determine whether such plants provide therapeutically relevant drug candidates or not. Clitoria ternatea, a plant from the family Fabaceae is a slender, perennial climber used as an anti-inflammatory agent in folklore medicine. In an effort to identify biologically active molecules from Clitoria ternatea, we have isolated two novel, disulfide rich cyclic peptides using reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP HPLC). Masses of these peptides were measured as 3058.8 Da and 3074.4 Da by an electrospray ionization mass spectrometer (ESI MS). Partial sequences of the peptides were assigned through manual de novo sequencing approach using tandem mass spectrometric data obtained from a matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometer (MALDI-TOF MS).

The coastal wetlands form an important component of coastal ecosystem and is subjected to human interventions. Majority of the wetlands located at the coastal tracts are characterized by dense mangrove covers. Due to the complex environment and fragile nature of these systems, they are listed among the most threatened resources. Increased awareness and planned plantation activities have shown good tendencies with the objectives of conservations of mangroves in Kasaragod. Application of satellite remote sensing techniques is found to be very effective in delineating the mangroves systems, which provides vital information for best management practices. Satellite data has been employed in the present investigation to characterize the land cover features and retrieving the spectral responses of wetland vegetations of coastal regions of Kasaragod. The outcome of study suggests the best methodology for mangrove vegetation analysis and provides systematic approach for the conservation and management of the wetland vegetation of Kasaragod.

The stingless bee plays a key role in pollination and yield enhancement of natural tropical plants and crops. The honey produced by stingless bee is unique and fetches high price because of its medicinal property. They collect nectar and pollen mainly from medicinal plants, low lying herbs and weeds having comparatively smaller flowers, which are not commonly visited by Apis spp. The rich biodiversity and abundant flora of the State is studied in relation to the foraging activity of stingless bees Trigona iridipennis Smith for its nectar and pollen. The study indicated that stingless bees visited 99 plants either for nectar or pollen or both. Out of these 99 plants recorded, 33 plants provided both nectar and pollen, 46 plants provided nectar only and 20 plants provided pollen alone.

Two monoculture plantations viz., Rubber and Teak were sampled over a period of 10 months from August 2009 to June 2010 for Bryophytes. A total of 1315 collections were made from 30 permanent quadrates laid on 6 transects. Rubber plantation was found to harbour 14 species and Teak 22. The species diversity increased during monsoon season and declined in drier months. This pattern was more pronounced in Teak plantation. On the other hand species found during the drier months are the more generalized and light tolerant mosses such as Fissidens ceylonensis, F. kalimpongensis, Hyophila comosa, H. involuta and liverworts such as Frullania acutiloba and F. campanulata. However, a significant variation in the number and type of species was not seen in both the plantations. This indicates that the monoculture plantations remain stable and promote the growth of more generalised and light tolerant species but lead to local extinction of species with restricted distribution.

The Kole land supports a variety of macrophytes, and their associated fauna. The present study was conducted to assess the macroinvertebrate communities associated with the microhabitats of macrophytes, Monochoria vaginalis and Eichhornia crassipes from the Ponnani kole. The samples were collected during premonsoon, monsoon and post monsoon seasons from 1 m² area of the vegetation. The area was demarked into quadrates. The samples were then taken using a scoop net and immediately transferred in to a polythene bag along with water. The vegetation in the polythene bag which served as the sampling unit was taken to the laboratory to observe the abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates associated with the macrophytes. Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen were also analyzed. The number of organisms in each group associated with the macrophytes were identified. The identified taxa were Annelida, Crustacea, Insecta, Arachnida, Gastropoda and Bivalvia. The taxa Insecta & Crustacea were found dominant in both Monochoria vaginalis and Eichhornia crassipes during pre and post monsoon. While during monsoon Insecta alone were found dominating in both the macrophytes. Twenty seven species of macroinvertebrates were found associated with the two macrophytes. On Monochoria vaginalis a total of nineteen species and on Eichhornia crassipes twenty two species of macroinvertebrates were observed. The results of the present study reveal that the two macrophytes provide habitat for diverse invertebrates, the abundance of which denotes the rich productivity of the area.

Orchids consists of biologically interesting and commercially significant groups of plants representing the largest flowering plant family with nearly 30,000 species in 800 genera; about 1300 species occur in India. Green pod culture of Acampe rigida, an exquisite orchid of Western Ghats was tested in four different culture media in situ. Mitra et al., Knudson C, Vacin and Went and Wimber media. Mitra et al., medium proved to be the best for obtaining high percentage seed germination. Green pod culture of this species was further raised with ease in Mitra et al., liquid medium fortified with different organic additives like casein acid hydrolysate (CH), peptone (P), yeast extract (YE), and coconut water (CW). Mitra et al., nutrient medium supplemented with 0.05% CH (w/v) to achieve maximum seed germination and protocorm development. CW was found be least effective in seed germination and subsequent protocorm development. After 60 days of culture in liquid medium, the developing protocorms were transferred to solid Mitra medium containing same amount of additives. Maximum proliferation of protocorm was achieved in CH containing medium. After second subculture in solid medium, the healthy rooted seedlings obtained were transferred to community pots containing charcoal and tile pieces and 83% survival rate was obtained.

Although Protected areas (PA) are effective in Biodiversity governance a noticeable change to a landscape oriented approach and a ‘People inclusive’ approach is observed. PA’s are increasingly becoming isolated islands of wilderness areas in a matrix of domesticated landscapes and species. This has led to newer paradigms for conservation practices at the landscape level such as ecologically sensitive areas, community conserved areas. Adoption of new adaptive approaches may offer ways to further expand the protected area network since they allow for sustainable use of natural resources with people’s participation. The economic potential of Biodiversity is unidentified which is considered as one of the factors for the rapid depletion of biodiversity and extinction of species. Financing biodiversity is vital for its conservation and management and mobilizing adequate finance is acknowledged as a huge challenge. Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) is an emerging internal financial option. Successful models of conservation practices should be communicated, scaled up and replicated and a repertoire of pioneering models that can be employed in different circumstances should be developed. Indian experience of balancing conservation and development by employing a range of stratagem for biodiversity management is detailed.