Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Coronaviruses

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2666-7967
ISSN (Online): 2666-7975

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Recent developments and opportunities in fighting COVID-19

Author(s): Vikram Rao and Subrat Kumar Bhattamisra*

Volume 2, Issue 7, 2021

Published on: 04 December, 2020

Article ID: e150721188721 Pages: 11

DOI: 10.2174/2666796701999201204120422

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: COVID-19, a Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARSCov- 2), was first diagnosed in the patients from Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Within a couple of months of infection, it was declared as pandemic by the World health organization. COVID-19 has become the most contagious infection with a serious threat to global health. In this review, we aimed to discuss the pathogenesis, diagnostics, current treatments and potential vaccines for COVID-19.

Methods: An extensive literature search was conducted using keywords “COVID-19”; “Coronavirus”; “SARS-Cov-2”; “SARS” in public domains of Google, Google scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. Selected articles were used to construct this review.

Results: SARS-Cov-2 uses the Spike (S) protein on its surface to recognize the receptor on angiotensin- converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and bind with 10-folds greater affinity than SARS-Cov-1. Molecular assays and immunoassays are the most frequently used tests, whereas computed tomography (CT) scans and artificial intelligence enabled diagnostic tools were also used in patients. In therapeutic treatment, few drugs were repurposed and about 23 therapeutic molecules, including the repurposed drugs are at different stages of the clinical trial. Similarly, the development of vaccines is also in the pipeline. Few countries have managed well to contain the spread by rapid testing and identifying the clusters.

Conclusion: Till now, the acute complications and mortality of COVID-19 have been linked to pre-existing comorbid conditions or age. Besides the development of therapeutic strategies that include drugs and vaccine, the long term implication of COVID-19 infection in terms of the disorder/ disability in the cured/discharged patients is a new area to investigate.

Keywords: COVID-19, coronavirus, diagnostics, pharmacological management, vaccines, pathogenesis.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 507-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7] [PMID: 32007143]
[2]
Worldometer. COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic. Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
[3]
Business Insider. Coronavirus patients over age 80 have a death rate of 15%. Here's the death rate for every age bracket. Available from: https://www.businessinsider.my/coronavirus-death-age-older-people-higher-risk-2020-2-2
[4]
Wang L, Wang Y, Ye D, Liu Q. A review of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) based on current evidence. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 56(3): 106137.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106137] [PMID: 32826129]
[5]
Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020; 579(7798): 270-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7] [PMID: 32015507]
[6]
Xu X, Chen P, Wang J, et al. Evolution of the novel coronavirus from the ongoing Wuhan outbreak and modeling of its spike protein for risk of human transmission. Sci China Life Sci 2020; 63(3): 457-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11427-020-1637-5] [PMID: 32009228]
[7]
Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, et al. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science 2020; 367(6483): 1260-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb2507] [PMID: 32075877]
[8]
Biswas A, Bhattacharjee U, Chakrabarti AK, Tewari DN, Banu H, Dutta S. Emergence of Novel Coronavirus and COVID-19: whether to stay or die out? Crit Rev Microbiol 2020; 46(2): 182-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1040841X.2020.1739001] [PMID: 32282268]
[9]
Xia J, Tong J, Liu M, Shen Y, Guo D. Evaluation of coronavirus in tears and conjunctival secretions of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. J Med Virol 2020; 92(6): 589-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25725] [PMID: 32100876]
[10]
Xiao F, Tang M, Zheng X, Liu Y, Li X, Shan H. Evidence for gastrointestinal infection of SARS-CoV-2. Gastroenterology 2020; 158(6): 1831-3.e3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.02.055] [PMID: 32142773]
[11]
Chen H, Guo J, Wang C, et al. Clinical characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women: a retrospective review of medical records. Lancet 2020; 395(10226): 809-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30360-3] [PMID: 32151335]
[12]
Yang Y, Lu Q, Liu M, et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in China. MedRxiv 2020.02.10.20021675.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.10.20021675]
[13]
Mao L, Wang M, Chen S, et al. Neurological manifestations of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective case series study. MedRxiv 2020.02.22.20026500 (pre-print).
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.22.20026500]
[14]
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 497-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5] [PMID: 31986264]
[15]
Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical caracteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; 323(11): 1061-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585] [PMID: 32031570]
[16]
Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, et al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8(4): 420-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30076-X] [PMID: 32085846]
[17]
Vashist SK. In vitro diagnostic assays for COVID-19: recent advances and emerging trends. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10(4): 1-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics10040202] [PMID: 32260471]
[18]
Chu DKW, Pan Y, Cheng SMS, et al. Molecular diagnosis of a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing an outbreak of pneumonia. Clin Chem 2020; 66(4): 549-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/hvaa029] [PMID: 32031583]
[19]
Chan JF, Yip CC, To KK, et al. Improved molecular diagnosis of COVID-19 by the novel, highly sensitive and specific COVID-19-RdRp/Hel real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay validated in vitro and with clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2020; 58(5): e00310-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00310-20] [PMID: 32132196]
[20]
Abbott. ID NOWTM COVID-19. Available from: https://www.alere.com/en/home/product-details/id-now-covid-19.html
[21]
Zhang F, Abudayyeh OO, Gootenberg JS. A protocol for detection of COVID-19 using CRISPR diagnostics. Bioarchive 2020; 20200321: 1-8.
[22]
Broughton JP, Deng W, Fasching CL, Singh J, Chiu CY, Chen JS. A protocol for rapid detection of the 2019 novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 using CRISPR diagnostics: SARS-CoV-2 DETECTR. South San Francisco, CA: Mammoth Biosciences 2020. Available from: https://mammoth.bio/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Mammoth-Biosciences-A-protocol-for-rapid-detection-of-SARS-CoV-2-using-CRISPR-diagnostics-DETECTR.pdf
[23]
BioMedomics. COVID-19 IgM/IgG rapid test. Available from: https://www.biomedomics.com/products/infectious-disease/covid-19-rt/
[24]
Chembio diagnostics. Chembio announces launch of DPP COVID-19 serological point-of-care test. Available from: https://chembiodiagnosticsinc.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/chembio-announces-launch-dpp-covid-19-serological-point-care.
[25]
BioWorld. China uses AI in medical imaging to speed up COVID-19 diagnosis. Available from: https://www.bioworld.com/articles/433530-china-uses-ai-in-medical-imaging-to-speed-up-covid-19-diagnosis.
[26]
Hosseiny M, Kooraki S, Gholamrezanezhad A, Reddy S, Myers L. Radiology perspective of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): lessons from severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2020; 214(5): 1078-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/AJR.20.22969] [PMID: 32108495]
[27]
Lu X, Zhang L, Du H, et al. Chinese pediatric novel coronavirus study team. SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Children. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(17): 1663-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2005073] [PMID: 32187458]
[28]
Pan F, Ye T, Sun P, Gui S, Liang B, Li L, et al. Time course of lung changes on chest CT during recovery from 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) Pneumonia. Radiology 2020; 295: 715-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200370]
[29]
Ye Z, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Huang Z, Song B. Chest CT manifestations of new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a pictorial review. Eur Radiol 2020; 30(8): 4381-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00330-020-06801-0] [PMID: 32193638]
[30]
NS Medical Devices. Ping an introduces smart image-reading system for COVID-19. Available From: https://www.nsmedicaldevices.com/news/ping-smart-image-reading-system/.
[31]
Infervision. InferRead TM CT Pneumonia. Available from: https://global.infervision.com/product/5/.
[32]
Canary Health Technologies. Breath Biomarkers Signal Key Health Data. Available from: https://www.canaryhealthtech.com/technologyoverview.
[33]
Clinical Trials. Gov. Interventional Studies covid-19. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?cond=covid-19&age_v=&gndr=&type=Intr&rslt=&Search=Apply
[34]
Warren TK, Jordan R, Lo MK, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys. Nature 2016; 531(7594): 381-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature17180] [PMID: 26934220]
[35]
Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res 2020; 30(3): 269-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0] [PMID: 32020029]
[36]
Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. Washington State 2019-nCoV case investigation team. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(10): 929-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191] [PMID: 32004427]
[37]
The Guardian. First trial for potential Covid-19 drug shows it has no effect. Availabe from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/23/high-hopes-drug-for-covid-19-treatment-failed-in-full-trial.
[38]
Wang Y, Zhang D, Du G, et al. Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet 2020; 395(10236): 1569-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31022-9] [PMID: 32423584]
[39]
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News. In draft results accidentally published by WHO, Gilead’s Remdesivir shows no benefit vs. COVID-19. Available from: https://www.genengnews.com/news/in-draft-results-accidentally-published-by-who-gileads-remdesivir-shows-no-benefit-vs-covid-19/.
[40]
Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, et al. Compassionate use of Remdesivir for patients with severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(24): 2327-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2007016] [PMID: 32275812]
[41]
Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, et al. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J 2005; 2(1): 69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69] [PMID: 16115318]
[42]
Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today’s diseases? Lancet Infect Dis 2003; 3(11): 722-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00806-5] [PMID: 14592603]
[43]
Golden EB, Cho HY, Hofman FM, Louie SG, Schönthal AH, Chen TC. Quinoline-based antimalarial drugs: a novel class of autophagy inhibitors. Neurosurg Focus 2015; 38(3): E12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2014.12.FOCUS14748] [PMID: 25727221]
[44]
Gao J, Tian Z, Yang X. Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends 2020; 14(1): 72-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5582/bst.2020.01047] [PMID: 32074550]
[45]
Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, Giarratano A, Einav S. A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19. J Crit Care 2020; 57: 279-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005] [PMID: 32173110]
[46]
Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Policy. FDA warns about hydroxychloroquine, chloroquine for COVID-19. Available from: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2020/04/fda-warns-about-hydroxychloroquine-chloroquine-covid-19.
[47]
47. The Guardian. Brazilian chloroquine study halted after high dose proved lethal for some patients. 2020. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/24/chloroquine-study-coronavirus-brazil
[48]
Chen Z, Hu J, Zhang Z, et al. Efficacy of hydroxychloroquine in patients with COVID-19: results of a randomized clinical trial. MedRxiv 2020; 20040758.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.22.20040758]
[49]
Mahévas M, Tran VT, Roumier M, et al. Clinical efficacy of hydroxychloroquine in patients with covid-19 pneumonia who require oxygen: observational comparative study using routine care data. BMJ 2020; 369: m1844.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1844] [PMID: 32409486]
[50]
Chen C, Huang J, Cheng Z, et al. Favipiravir versus Arbidol for COVID-19: A randomized clinical trial. MedRxiv 2020; 20037432.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.17.20037432]
[51]
Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, et al. Experimental treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: an open-label control study. Engineering (Beijing) 2020; 6: 1192-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007] [PMID: 32346491]
[52]
Japan Times. Drug Avigan that was pushed by Abe falls short in COVID-19 trials. 2020. Available from: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/05/20/national/science-health/avigan-coronavirus-results/#.XsX1mWgzaUk
[53]
Xu X, Han M, Li T, et al. Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2020; 117(20): 10970-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2005615117] [PMID: 32350134]
[54]
Science Business. Sanofi and Regeneron provide update on U.S. phase 2/3 trial in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. 2020. Available From: https://sciencebusiness.net/network-updates/sanofi-and-regeneron-provide-update-us-phase-23-trial-hospitalized-covid-19
[55]
STAT News. Closely watched arthritis drug disappoints as a Covid-19 treatment, studies show. 2020. Available From: https://www.statnews.com/2020/04/27/arthritis-drug-kevzara-disappoints-as-coronavirus-treatment/
[56]
Intrado. Sanofi provides update on Kevzara® (sarilumab) Phase 3 trial in severe and critically ill COVID-19 patients outside the U.S. 2020. Available From: https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/09/01/2086564/0/en/Sanofi-provides-update-on-Kevzara-sarilumab-Phase-3-trial-in-severe-and-critically-ill-COVID-19-patients-outside-the-U-S.html
[57]
Richardson P, Griffin I, Tucker C, et al. Baricitinib as potential treatment for 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): e30-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30304-4] [PMID: 32032529]
[58]
Titanji BK, Farley MM, Mehta A, et al. Use of Baricitinib in patients with moderate and severe COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 72: 1247-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa879] [PMID: 32597466]
[59]
Kunzmann K. Contagion. Kunzmann K. Baricitinib plus remdesivir improves hospitalized COVID-19. Contagion 2020. Available From: https://www.contagionlive.com/news/baricitinib-plus-remdesivir-improves-hospitalized-covid19
[60]
Leng Z, Zhu R, Hou W, et al. Transplantation of ACE2- Mesenchymal stem cells improves the outcome of patients with covid-19 pneumonia. Aging Dis 2020; 11(2): 216-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14336/AD.2020.0228] [PMID: 32257537]
[61]
Liang B, Chen J, Li T, et al. Clinical remission of a critically ill COVID-19 patient treated by human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells: A case report. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020; 99(31): e21429.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000021429] [PMID: 32756149]
[62]
Craven J. Regulatory Focus. Craven J. COVID-19 vaccine tracker. 2020. Available From: https://www.raps.org/news-and-articles/news-articles/2020/3/covid-19-vaccine- tracker.
[63]
Fierce Pharma. It could take 5 years for 2 leading COVID-19 vaccines to debut, AI analysis finds. Available From: https://www.fiercepharma.com/pharma/don-t-count-a-covid-19-vaccine-for-at-least-five- years-says-ai-based-forecast.
[64]
European Pharmaceutical Review. BARDA to give Moderna up to $483 million for COVID-19 vaccine development. Available From: https://www.europeanpharmaceuticalreview.com/news/117327/barda- to-give-moderna-up-to-483-million-for-covid-19-vaccine-development/.
[65]
Jackson LA, Anderson EJ, Rouphael NG, et al. mRNA-1273 study group. An mRNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 - preliminary report. N Engl J Med 2020; 383(20): 1920-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2022483] [PMID: 32663912]
[66]
Trial Site News. CanSino Biologics’ Ad5-nCoV the first COVID-19 vaccine to phase II clinical trials. Available from: https://www.trialsitenews.com/cansino-biologics-ad5-ncov-the-first-covid-19-vaccine- to-phase-ii-clinical-trials/.
[67]
Zhu FC, Guan XH, Li YH, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of a recombinant adenovirus type-5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18 years or older: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet 2020; 396(10249): 479-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31605-6] [PMID: 32702299]
[68]
Contagion Live. COVID-19 vaccine trial underway in England. Available from: https://www.contagionlive.com/news/covid-19-vaccine- trial-england.
[69]
Folegatti PM, Ewer KJ, Aley PK, et al. Oxford COVID Vaccine Trial Group. Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1/2, single-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2020; 396(10249): 467-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31604-4] [PMID: 32702298]
[70]
Centre Watch. Immunity and safety of Covid-19 synthetic minigene vaccine. Available from: https://www.centerwatch.com/clinical-trials/listings/238132/pathogen-infection-covid-19-infection-immunity-safety-covid-19-synthetic/?&radius=50.
[71]
Redelman-Sidi G. Could BCG be used to protect against COVID-19? Nat Rev Urol 2020; 17(6): 316-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41585-020-0325-9] [PMID: 32341531]
[72]
Miller A, Reandelar MJ, Fasciglione K, Roumenova V, Li Y, Otazu GH. Correlation between universal BCG vaccination policy and reduced morbidity and mortality for COVID-19: an epidemiological study. MedRxiv 2020; 20042937.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.24.20042937]
[73]
Rabby MI. Md Insiat Islam Rabby. Current drugs with potential for treatment of covid-19: A literature review. J Pharm Pharm Sci 2020; 23(1): 58-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18433/jpps31002] [PMID: 32251618]
[74]
Visual Capitalist. Every vaccine and treatment in development for COVID-19, so far. Available from: https://www.visualcapitalist.com/every- vaccine-treatment-covid-19-so-far/.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
28
2
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy