Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Coronaviruses

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2666-7967
ISSN (Online): 2666-7975

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Comprehensive Review on Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Auspicious Management of COVID 19

Author(s): Pratibha Auti*, Sagar Kothawade, Anagha Soundankar and Vinayak Kumbhar

Volume 2, Issue 6, 2021

Published on: 21 October, 2020

Article ID: e020621187086 Pages: 13

DOI: 10.2174/2666796701999201021150744

Price: $65

Abstract

COVID-19 has been identified as a major international concern and global challenge for public health. We have discussed COVID-19 as an infectious disease creating a pandemic situation aross the globe and various tests that have been carried out to detect and treat the infection along with the possibility of finding a vaccination and its results. We have reviewed diagnostic tests such as serological detection, rapid antibody test, nucleic acid test, polymerase chain reaction test, high sophistication molecular-based laboratory testing (USA) and blood gas analyzer aiding. We have reviewed effective drug therapies and their results along with various drugs like Hydroxychloroquine in combination with azithromycin and other drugs like remdesivir, favipiravir, lopinavir and ritonavir tried individually. We have discussed in detail the current research on vaccination conducted by the Oxford University, UK. Our review highlights the success of drug therapy and vaccine trials conducted on sample human populations giving a hope to control the pandemic in the future.

Keywords: Coronavirus, COVID-19, detection kit, replication, treatment, vaccination.

[1]
Cheng SC, Chang YC, Fan Chiang YL, et al. First case of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia in Taiwan. J Formos Med Assoc 2020; 119(3): 747-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfma.2020.02.007] [PMID: 32113824]
[2]
Su S, Wong G, Shi W, et al. Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24(6): 490-502.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2016.03.003] [PMID: 27012512]
[3]
Runfeng L, Yunlong H, Jicheng H, et al. Lianhuaqingwen exerts anti-viral and anti-inflammatory activity against novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Pharmacol Res 2020; 156: 104761.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104761] [PMID: 32205232]
[4]
World Health Organization. WHO statement on the first meeting of the International Health Regulations (IHR 2005) Emergency Committee on Zika vírus and observed increase in neurological disorders and neonatal malformations. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/01-02-2016-who-statement-on-the-first-meeting-of-the-international-health-regulations-(2005)-(ihr-2005)-emergency-committee-on-zika-virus-and-observed-increase-in-neurological-disorders-and-neonatal-malformations
[5]
World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) situation report-95. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200424-sitrep-95-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=e8065831_4
[6]
Drosten C, Günther S, Preiser W, et al. Identification of a novel coronavirus in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003; 348(20): 1967-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030747] [PMID: 12690091]
[7]
Vabret A, Mourez T, Gouarin S, Petitjean J, Freymuth F. An outbreak of coronavirus OC43 respiratory infection in Normandy, France. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36(8): 985-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/374222] [PMID: 12684910]
[8]
Gerna G, Campanini G, Rovida F, et al. Genetic variability of human coronavirus OC43-, 229E-, and NL63-like strains and their association with lower respiratory tract infections of hospitalized infants and immunocompromised patients. J Med Virol 2006; 78(7): 938-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.20645] [PMID: 16721849]
[9]
Vabret A, Dina J, Gouarin S, et al. Human (non-severe acute respiratory syndrome) coronavirus infections in hospitalised children in France. J Paediatr Child Health 2008; 44(4): 176-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2007.01246.x] [PMID: 17999671]
[10]
Gerna G, Percivalle E, Sarasini A, et al. Human respiratory coronavirus HKU1 versus other coronavirus infections in Italian hospitalised patients. J Clin Virol 2007; 38(3): 244-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2006.12.008] [PMID: 17222582]
[11]
Mäkelä MJ, Puhakka T, Ruuskanen O, et al. Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36(2): 539-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.36.2.539-542.1998] [PMID: 9466772]
[12]
Woo PC, Lau SK, Huang Y, Yuen K-Y. Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2009; 234(10): 1117-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3181/0903-MR-94] [PMID: 19546349]
[13]
Weiss SR, Navas-Martin S. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2005; 69(4): 635-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.69.4.635-664.2005] [PMID: 16339739]
[14]
Kim KY, Han SY, Kim H-S, Cheong H-M, Kim SS, Kim DS. Human coronavirus in the 2014 winter season as a cause of lower respiratory tract infection. Yonsei Med J 2017; 58(1): 174-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2017.58.1.174] [PMID: 27873511]
[15]
Dominguez SR, Robinson CC, Holmes KV. Detection of four human coronaviruses in respiratory infections in children: a one-year study in Colorado. J Med Virol 2009; 81(9): 1597-604.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.21541] [PMID: 19626607]
[16]
Neuman BW, Adair BD, Yoshioka C, et al. Supramolecular architecture of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus revealed by electron cryomicroscopy. J Virol 2006; 80(16): 7918-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00645-06] [PMID: 16873249]
[17]
Beniac DR, Andonov A, Grudeski E, Booth TF. Architecture of the SARS coronavirus prefusion spike. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2006; 13(8): 751-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nsmb1123] [PMID: 16845391]
[18]
Lupia T, Scabini S, Mornese Pinna S, Di Perri G, De Rosa FG, Corcione S. 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak: A new challenge. J Glob Antimicrob Resist 2020; 21: 22-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2020.02.021] [PMID: 32156648]
[19]
Delmas B, Laude H. Assembly of coronavirus spike protein into trimers and its role in epitope expression. J Virol 1990; 64(11): 5367-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.64.11.5367-5375.1990] [PMID: 2170676]
[20]
Bosch BJ, van der Zee R, de Haan CA, Rottier PJ. The coronavirus spike protein is a class I virus fusion protein: structural and functional characterization of the fusion core complex. J Virol 2003; 77(16): 8801-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.77.16.8801-8811.2003] [PMID: 12885899]
[21]
Adhikari SP, Meng S, Wu YJ, et al. Epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) during the early outbreak period: a scoping review. Infect Dis Poverty 2020; 9(1): 29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40249-020-00646-x] [PMID: 32183901]
[22]
Schoeman D, Fielding BC. Coronavirus envelope protein: current knowledge. Virol J 2019; 16(1): 69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12985-019-1182-0] [PMID: 31133031]
[23]
Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P. Coronaviruses: Methods and Protocols. Switzerland: Humana Press 2015; p. 1282.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7]
[24]
Chen Y, Liu Q, Guo D. Emerging coronaviruses: Genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. J Med Virol 2020; 92(4): 418-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25681] [PMID: 31967327]
[25]
Li Y, Surya W, Claudine S, Torres J. Structure of a conserved Golgi complex-targeting signal in coronavirus envelope proteins. J Biol Chem 2014; 289(18): 12535-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M114.560094] [PMID: 24668816]
[26]
Surya W, Samsó M, Torres J. Structural and functional aspects of viroporins in human respiratory viruses: respiratory syncytial virus and coronaviruses. In: vats M, Ed. Respiratory disease and infection - a new insight. In Tech 2013; pp. 47-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53957]
[27]
Chang CK, Lo SC, Wang YS, Hou MH. Recent insights into the development of therapeutics against coronavirus diseases by targeting N protein. Drug Discov Today 2016; 21(4): 562-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2015.11.015] [PMID: 26691874]
[28]
McBride R, van Zyl M, Fielding BC. The coronavirus nucleocapsid is a multifunctional protein. Viruses 2014; 6(8): 2991-3018.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v6082991] [PMID: 25105276]
[29]
Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. China novel coronavirus investigating and research team. a novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in china, 2019. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(8): 727-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017] [PMID: 31978945]
[30]
World Health Organization. Modes of transmission of virus causing COVID-19: implications for IPC precaution recommendations. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/modes-of-transmission-of-virus-causing-covid-19-implications-for-ipc-precaution-recommendations
[31]
Prajapat M, Sarma P, Shekhar N, et al. Drug targets for corona virus: A systematic review. Indian J Pharmacol 2020; 52(1): 56-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijp.IJP_115_20] [PMID: 32201449]
[32]
Cui J, Li F, Shi Z-L. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 17(3): 181-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9] [PMID: 30531947]
[33]
Rabi FA, Al Zoubi MS, Kasasbeh GA, Salameh DM, Al-Nasser AD. SARS-CoV-2 and Coronavirus Disease 2019: What We Know So Far. Pathogens 2020; 9(3): 1-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9030231] [PMID: 32245083]
[34]
Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection: Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res 2020; 24: 91-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005] [PMID: 32257431]
[35]
World Health Organization. Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) 16-24 February 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf
[36]
Rothan HA, Byrareddy SN. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J Autoimmun 2020; 109: 102433.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102433] [PMID: 32113704]
[37]
Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 514-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9] [PMID: 31986261]
[38]
Thompson R. Pandemic potential of 2019-nCoV. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(3): 280.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30068-2] [PMID: 32043978]
[39]
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 497-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5] [PMID: 31986264]
[40]
Burke RM, Midgley CM, Dratch A, et al. Active monitoring of persons exposed to patients with confirmed COVID-19-United States, January-February 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020; 69(9): 245-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6909e1] [PMID: 32134909]
[41]
World Health Organization. Report of the WHO-China joint mission on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications-detail/report-of-the-who-china-joint-mission-on-coronavirus-disease-2019-(covid-19)
[42]
Lai CC, Shih TP, Ko WC, Tang HJ, Hsueh PR. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55(3): 105924.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924] [PMID: 32081636]
[43]
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Emergency use authorizations June 12, 2020. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/136622/download
[44]
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Emergency use authorizations March 18, 2020. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/136255/download
[45]
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Qualitative assay for use on the cobas® 6800/8800 Systems for emergency use authorizations. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/136049/download
[46]
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Emergency use authorizations April 12, 2021. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/media/136046/download
[47]
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. EUA authorized serology test performance. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-emergency-use-authorizations-medical-devices/eua-authorized-serology-test-performance
[48]
World Health Organization. Advice on the use of point-of-care immunodiagnostic tests for COVID-19. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/advice-on-the-use-of-point-of-care-immunodiagnostic-tests-for-covid-19
[49]
Yong SEF, Anderson DE, Wei WE, et al. Connecting clusters of COVID-19: an epidemiological and serological investigation. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(7): 809-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30273-5] [PMID: 32330439]
[50]
World Health Organization. "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200327-sitrep-67-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=b65f68eb_4
[51]
Li Z, Yi Y, Luo X, et al. Development and clinical application of a rapid IgM-IgG combined antibody test for SARS-CoV-2 infection diagnosis. J Med Virol 2020; 92(9): 1518-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25727] [PMID: 32104917]
[52]
Curetis.com. Curetis group company ares genetics and BGI group collaborate to offer next-generation sequencing and PCR-based soronavirus (2019-nCoV) testing in europe 2019. 2019. Available from: https://ml-eu.globenewswire.com/Resource/Download/6a64b063-a101-4578-a936-fa4f04950f3f
[53]
Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, et al. China medical treatment expert group for Covid-19. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(18): 1708-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032] [PMID: 32109013]
[54]
Bruning AHL, Leeflang MMG, Vos JMBW, et al. Rapid tests for influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, and other respiratory viruses: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 65(6): 1026-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix461] [PMID: 28520858]
[55]
Liu Y, Liu Y, Diao B, et al. Diagnostic indexes of a Rapid IgG/IgM Combined Antibody Test for SARS-CoV-2. medRxiv 2020.
[56]
Zhang P, Gao Q, Wang T, et al. Evaluation of recombinant nucleocapsid and spike proteins for serological diagnosis of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). MedRxiv 2019.
[57]
Pan Y, Li X, Yang G, et al. Serological immunochromatographic approach in diagnosis with SARS-CoV-2 infected COVID-19 patients. J Infect 2020; 81(1): e28-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.051] [PMID: 32283141]
[58]
Okba NMA, Muller MA, Li W, Wang C, et al. SARS-COV-2 specific antibody responses in COVID-19 patients. Medxriv 2020031820038059 2020. Available from: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.18.20038059v1
[59]
Gorse GJ, Donovan MM, Patel GB. Antibodies to coronaviruses are higher in older compared with younger adults and binding antibodies are more sensitive than neutralizing antibodies in identifying coronavirus-associated illnesses. J Med Virol 2020; 92(5): 512-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25715] [PMID: 32073157]
[60]
Okba NM, Muller MA, Li W, Wang C. SARS-CoV-2 specific antibody responses in COVID-19 patients. MedRxiv 2020031820038059 2020. Available from: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.18.20038059v1
[61]
Indian Council of Medical Research. Guidance on rapid antibody kits for COVID-19. Available from: https://www.icmr.gov.in/pdf/covid/kits/archive/Antibody_based_tests_15122020.pdf
[62]
Craw P, Balachandran W. Isothermal nucleic acid amplification technologies for point-of-care diagnostics: a critical review. Lab Chip 2012; 12(14): 2469-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2lc40100b] [PMID: 22592150]
[63]
Notomi T, Okayama H, Masubuchi H, et al. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res 2000; 28(12): E63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/28.12.e63] [PMID: 10871386]
[64]
Mori Y, Nagamine K, Tomita N, Notomi T. Detection of loop-mediated isothermal amplification reaction by turbidity derived from magnesium pyrophosphate formation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 289(1): 150-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2001.5921] [PMID: 11708792]
[65]
Kim J, Biondi MJ, Feld JJ, Chan WC. Clinical validation of quantum dot barcode diagnostic technology. ACS Nano 2016; 10(4): 4742-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.6b01254] [PMID: 27035744]
[66]
Elnifro EM, Ashshi AM, Cooper RJ, Klapper PE. Multiplex PCR: optimization and application in diagnostic virology. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000; 13(4): 559-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.13.4.559] [PMID: 11023957]
[67]
Dunbar SA. Applications of Luminex xMAP technology for rapid, high-throughput multiplexed nucleic acid detection. Clin Chim Acta 2006; 363(1-2): 71-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cccn.2005.06.023] [PMID: 16102740]
[68]
U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Emergency use authorizations for medical devices. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/emergency-situations-medical-devices/emergency-use-authorizations
[69]
Siemens-healthineers. Siemens Healthineers RAPIDPoint 500e blood gas analyzer after Europe now available in US as well, joins portfolio aiding COVID-19 efforts. Available from: https://www.siemens-healthineers.com/en-in/press-room/press releases/rapidpoint500ebloodgasanalyzer.html
[70]
Budak YU, Huysal K, Polat M. Use of a blood gas analyzer and a laboratory autoanalyzer in routine practice to measure electrolytes in intensive care unit patients. BMC Anesthesiol 2012; 12(1): 17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2253-12-17] [PMID: 22862792]
[71]
Severinghaus JW, Astrup P, Murray JF. Blood gas analysis and critical care medicine. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157(4 Pt 2): S114-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.157.4.nhlb1-9] [PMID: 9563770]
[72]
World Health Organization. Basic protective measures against the new coronavirus. Available from: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public
[73]
healthline. Coronavirus (COVID-19) prevention: 12 Tips and strategies. Available from: https://www.healthline.com/health/coronavirus-prevention
[74]
74. World Health Organization. Infection prevention and control during health care when novel coronavirus (nCoV) infection is suspected. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/10665-331495
[75]
Government of India. Best practices to prevent yourself from COVID-19. Available from: https://blog.mygov.in/best-practices-to-prevent-yourself-from-covid-19/
[76]
Khan SS, Smith MS, Reda D, Suffredini AF, McCoy JP Jr. Multiplex bead array assays for detection of soluble cytokines: comparisons of sensitivity and quantitative values among kits from multiple manufacturers. Cytometry B Clin Cytom 2004; 61(1): 35-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cyto.b.20021] [PMID: 15351980]
[77]
Lyu T, Song L, Jin L, Zou Y. Expert consensus on the procedure of interventional diagnosis and treatment of cancer patients during the COVID-19 epidemic. J Interv Med 2020; 3: 61-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jimed.2020.03.001]
[78]
Mitra RL, Greenstein SA, Epstein LM. An algorithm for managing QT prolongation in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients treated with either chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine in conjunction with azithromycin: Possible benefits of intravenous lidocaine. Heart Rhythm Case Rep 2020; 6(5): 244-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrcr.2020.03.016] [PMID: 32363145]
[79]
Sahraei Z, Shabani M, Shokouhi S, Saffaei A. Aminoquinolines against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55(4): 105945.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105945] [PMID: 32194152]
[80]
Zhai P, Ding Y, Wu X, Long J, Zhong Y, Li Y. The epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55(5): 105955.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105955] [PMID: 32234468]
[81]
Cao YC, Deng QX, Dai SX. Remdesivir for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 causing COVID-19: An evaluation of the evidence. Travel Med Infect Dis 2020; 35: 101647.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101647] [PMID: 32247927]
[82]
Fang X, Mei Q, Yang T, et al. Low-dose corticosteroid therapy does not delay viral clearance in patients with COVID-19. J Infect 2020; 81(1): 147-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.039] [PMID: 32283153]
[83]
Elfiky AA. Ribavirin, Remdesivir, Sofosbuvir, Galidesivir, and Tenofovir against SARS-CoV-2 RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp): A molecular docking study. Life Sci 2020; 253: 117592.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117592] [PMID: 32222463]
[84]
Choy KT, Wong AY, Kaewpreedee P, et al. Remdesivir, lopinavir, emetine, and homoharringtonine inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro. Antiviral Res 2020; 178: 104786.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104786] [PMID: 32251767]
[85]
Jean SS, Lee PI, Hsueh PR. Treatment options for COVID-19: The reality and challenges. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2020; 53(3): 436-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.034] [PMID: 32307245]
[86]
Zheng C, Wang J, Guo H, et al. Anhui Medical team members of National aid to prevent and treat novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan. Risk-adapted treatment strategy for covid-19 patients. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 94: 74-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.047] [PMID: 32229257]
[87]
Cheng RZ. Can early and high intravenous dose of vitamin C prevent and treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? Med Drug Discov 2020; 5: 100028.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100028] [PMID: 32328576]
[88]
Stebbing J, Phelan A, Griffin I, et al. COVID-19: combining antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatments. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(4): 400-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30132-8] [PMID: 32113509]
[89]
Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 56(1): 105949.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949] [PMID: 32205204]
[90]
Baron SA, Devaux C, Colson P, Raoult D, Rolain JM. Teicoplanin: an alternative drug for the treatment of COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55(4): 105944.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105944] [PMID: 32179150]
[91]
Favalli EG, Biggioggero M, Maioli G, Caporali R. Baricitinib for COVID-19: a suitable treatment? Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(9): 1012-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30262-0] [PMID: 32251638]
[92]
Richardson PJ, Corbellino M, Stebbing J. Baricitinib for COVID-19: a suitable treatment? - Authors’ reply. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(9): 1013-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30270-X] [PMID: 32251639]
[93]
Xu J, Zhang Y. Traditional Chinese Medicine treatment of COVID-19. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2020; 39: 101165.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101165] [PMID: 32379692]
[94]
Panda AK, Dixit AK, Rout S, Mishra B, Purad UV, Kar S. Ayurveda practitioners consensus to develop strategies for prevention and treatment of corona virus disease (COVID-19). J Ayurveda Integr Med Sci 2020; 5(1): 98-106.
[95]
Zhang R, Wang X, Ni L, et al. COVID-19: Melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment. Life Sci 2020; 250: 117583.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117583] [PMID: 32217117]
[96]
Metcalfe SM. Mesenchymal stem cells and management of COVID-19 pneumonia. Med Drug Discov 2020; 5: 100019.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100019] [PMID: 32296777]
[97]
Michot JM, Albiges L, Chaput N, et al. Tocilizumab, an anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, to treat COVID-19-related respiratory failure: a case report. Ann Oncol 2020; 31(7): 961-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annonc.2020.03.300] [PMID: 32247642]
[98]
Oxford University. Oxford COVID-19 vaccine programme opens for clinical trial recruitment. Available from: https://covid19vaccinetrial.co.uk/press-release-trial-open
[99]
Oxford University. How long will it take to get the Oxford vaccine to deployment?. Available from: https://covid19vaccinetrial.co.uk/press-release-trial-open
[100]
Oxford University. The Oxford Vaccine Centre COVID-19 phase I clinical trial explained. Available from: https://covid19vaccinetrial.co.uk/press-updates
[101]
World Health Organization. DRAFT landscape of COVID-19 candidate vaccines. Available from: https://www.who.int/blueprint/priority-diseases/key-action/Novel_Coronavirus_Landscape_nCoV_11April2020.PDF

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
12
2
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy