Generic placeholder image

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 0929-8673
ISSN (Online): 1875-533X

Review Article

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone and GnRH Receptor: Structure, Function and Drug Development

Author(s): Haralambos Tzoupis, Agathi Nteli, Maria-Eleni Androutsou and Theodore Tselios*

Volume 27, Issue 36, 2020

Page: [6136 - 6158] Pages: 23

DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190712165444

Price: $65

conference banner
Abstract

Background: Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) is a key element in sexual maturation and regulation of the reproductive cycle in the human organism. GnRH interacts with the pituitary cells through the activation of the Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone Receptors (GnRHR). Any impairments/dysfunctions of the GnRH-GnRHR complex lead to the development of various cancer types and disorders. Furthermore, the identification of GnRHR as a potential drug target has led to the development of agonist and antagonist molecules implemented in various treatment protocols. The development of these drugs was based on the information derived from the functional studies of GnRH and GnRHR.

Objective: This review aims at shedding light on the versatile function of GnRH and GnRH receptor and offers an apprehensive summary regarding the development of different agonists, antagonists and non-peptide GnRH analogues.

Conclusion: The information derived from these studies can enhance our understanding of the GnRH-GnRHR versatile nature and offer valuable insight into the design of new more potent molecules.

Keywords: GnRH, GnRH receptor, infertility, prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, agonists, antagonists.

[1]
Schally, A.V.; Arimura, A.; Kastin, A.J.; Matsuo, H.; Baba, Y.; Redding, T.W.; Nair, R.M.; Debeljuk, L.; White, W.F. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: one polypeptide regulates secretion of luteinizing and follicle-stimulating hormones. Science, 1971, 173(4001), 1036-1038.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.173.4001.1036] [PMID: 4938639]
[2]
Kaiser, U.B.; Conn, P.M.; Chin, W.W. Studies of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) action using GnRH receptor-expressing pituitary cell lines. Endocr. Rev., 1997, 18(1), 46-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.18.1.46] [PMID: 9034786]
[3]
Meysing, A.U.; Kanasaki, H.; Bedecarrats, G.Y.; Acierno, J.S., Jr; Conn, P.M.; Martin, K.A.; Seminara, S.B.; Hall, J.E.; Crowley, W.F., Jr; Kaiser, U.B. GNRHR mutations in a woman with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism highlight the differential sensitivity of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone to gonadotropin-releasing hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2004, 89(7), 3189-3198.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-031808] [PMID: 15240592]
[4]
Baba, Y.; Matsuo, H.; Schally, A.V. Structure of the porcine LH- and FSH-releasing hormone. II. Confirmation of the proposed structure by conventional sequential analyses. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1971, 44(2), 459-463.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-291X(71)90623-1] [PMID: 4946067]
[5]
Ferris, H.A.; Shupnik, M.A. Mechanisms for pulsatile regulation of the gonadotropin subunit genes by GNRH1. Biol. Reprod., 2006, 74(6), 993-998.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.105.049049] [PMID: 16481592]
[6]
Czieselsky, K.; Prescott, M.; Porteous, R.; Campos, P.; Clarkson, J.; Steyn, F.J.; Campbell, R.E.; Herbison, A.E. Pulse and surge profiles of luteinizing hormone secretion in the mouse. Endocrinology, 2016, 157(12), 4794-4802.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2016-1351] [PMID: 27715255]
[7]
Maggi, R.; Cariboni, A.M.; Marelli, M.M.; Moretti, R.M.; Andrè, V.; Marzagalli, M.; Limonta, P. GnRH and GnRH receptors in the pathophysiology of the human female reproductive system. Hum. Reprod. Update, 2016, 22(3), 358-381.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmv059] [PMID: 26715597]
[8]
Joseph, N.T.; Morgan, K.; Sellar, R.; McBride, D.; Millar, R.P.; Dunn, I.C. The chicken type III GnRH receptor homologue is predominantly expressed in the pituitary and exhibits similar ligand selectivity to the type I receptor. J. Endocrinol., 2009, 202(1), 179-190.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/JOE-08-0544] [PMID: 19380456]
[9]
Troskie, B.; Illing, N.; Rumbak, E.; Sun, Y.M.; Hapgood, J.; Sealfon, S.; Conklin, D.; Millar, R. Identification of three putative GnRH receptor subtypes in vertebrates. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 1998, 112(3), 296-302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/gcen.1998.7156] [PMID: 9843635]
[10]
True, C.; Takahashi, D.; Kirigiti, M.; Lindsley, S.R.; Moctezuma, C.; Arik, A.; Smith, M.S.; Kievit, P.; Grove, K.L. Arcuate nucleus neuropeptide coexpression and connections to gonadotrophin-releasing hormone neurones in the female rhesus macaque. J. Neuroendocrinol., 2017, 29(6), 29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jne.12491] [PMID: 28561903]
[11]
Glanowska, K.M.; Burger, L.L.; Moenter, S.M. Development of gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion and pituitary response. J. Neurosci., 2014, 34(45), 15060-15069.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2200-14.2014] [PMID: 25378170]
[12]
Desaulniers, A.T.; Cederberg, R.A.; Mills, G.A.; Lents, C.A.; White, B.R. Production of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone 2 receptor knockdown (GNRHR2 KD) swine line. Transgenic Res., 2017, 26(4), 567-575.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11248-017-0023-4] [PMID: 28534229]
[13]
Lents, C.A.; Thorson, J.F.; Desaulniers, A.T.; White, B.R. RFamide-related peptide 3 and gonadotropin-releasing hormone-II are autocrine-paracrine regulators of testicular function in the boar. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 2017, 84(9), 994-1003.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mrd.22830] [PMID: 28475264]
[14]
Ray, D.; Han, Y.; Franchitto, A.; DeMorrow, S.; Meng, F.; Venter, J.; McMillin, M.; Kennedy, L.; Francis, H.; Onori, P.; Mancinelli, R.; Gaudio, E.; Alpini, G.; Glaser, S.S. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulates biliary proliferation by paracrine/autocrine mechanisms. Am. J. Pathol., 2015, 185(4), 1061-1072.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.12.004] [PMID: 25794706]
[15]
Wen, S.; Götze, I.N.; Mai, O.; Schauer, C.; Leinders-Zufall, T.; Boehm, U. Genetic identification of GnRH receptor neurons: a new model for studying neural circuits underlying reproductive physiology in the mouse brain. Endocrinology, 2011, 152(4), 1515-1526.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2010-1208] [PMID: 21303944]
[16]
Schneider, J.S.; Rissman, E.F. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone II: a multi-purpose neuropeptide. Integr. Comp. Biol., 2008, 48(5), 588-595.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/icn018] [PMID: 21669818]
[17]
Mohamed, J.S.; Khan, I.A. Molecular cloning and differential expression of three GnRH mRNAs in discrete brain areas and lymphocytes in red drum. J. Endocrinol., 2006, 188(3), 407-416.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.1.06423] [PMID: 16522721]
[18]
Kuo, M.W.; Lou, S.W.; Postlethwait, J.; Chung, B.C. Chromosomal organization, evolutionary relationship, and expression of zebrafish GnRH family members. J. Biomed. Sci., 2005, 12(4), 629-639.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11373-005-7457-z] [PMID: 16132106]
[19]
Morgan, K.; Millar, R.P. Evolution of GnRH ligand precursors and GnRH receptors in protochordate and vertebrate species. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 2004, 139(3), 191-197.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2004.09.015] [PMID: 15560865]
[20]
López de Maturana, R.; Pawson, A.J.; Lu, Z.L.; Davidson, L.; Maudsley, S.; Morgan, K.; Langdon, S.P.; Millar, R.P. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog structural determinants of selectivity for inhibition of cell growth: support for the concept of ligand-induced selective signaling. Mol. Endocrinol., 2008, 22(7), 1711-1722.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/me.2006-0537] [PMID: 18467526]
[21]
Gründker, C.; Schlotawa, L.; Viereck, V.; Eicke, N.; Horst, A.; Kairies, B.; Emons, G. Antiproliferative effects of the GnRH antagonist cetrorelix and of GnRH-II on human endometrial and ovarian cancer cells are not mediated through the GnRH type I receptor. Eur. J. Endocrinol., 2004, 151(1), 141-149.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1510141] [PMID: 15248835]
[22]
Illing, N.; Troskie, B.E.; Nahorniak, C.S.; Hapgood, J.P.; Peter, R.E.; Millar, R.P. Two gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor subtypes with distinct ligand selectivity and differential distribution in brain and pituitary in the goldfish (Carassius auratus). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1999, 96(5), 2526-2531.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.5.2526] [PMID: 10051676]
[23]
Coccia, M.E.; Comparetto, C.; Bracco, G.L.; Scarselli, G. GnRH antagonists. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol., 2004, 115(Suppl. 1), S44-S56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2004.01.033] [PMID: 15196716]
[24]
Varasteh Moradi, S.; Varamini, P.; Steyn, F.; Toth, I. In vivo pharmacological evaluation of a lactose-conjugated luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogue. Int. J. Pharm., 2015, 495(1), 106-111.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.08.095] [PMID: 26325323]
[25]
Baldwin, E.L.; Wegorzewska, I.N.; Flora, M.; Wu, T.J. Regulation of type II luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH-II) gene expression by the processed peptide of LHRH-I, LHRH-(1-5) in endometrial cells. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood), 2007, 232(1), 146-155.
[PMID: 17202595]
[26]
Walters, K.; Chin, Y.P.; Wu, T.J. A processed metabolite of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone has proliferative effects in endometrial cells. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 2007, 196(1), 33.e1-e5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2006.07.054]] [PMID: 172400223]
[27]
Hannan, M.A.; Kawate, N.; Fukami, Y.; Weerakoon, W.W.; Büllesbach, E.E.; Inaba, T.; Tamada, H. Effects of long-acting GnRH antagonist, degarelix acetate, on plasma insulin-like peptide 3, testosterone and luteinizing hormone concentrations, and scrotal circumference in male goats. Theriogenology, 2017, 88, 228-235.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.09.032] [PMID: 27793455]
[28]
Salciccia, S.; Gentilucci, A.; Cattarino, S.; Sciarra, A. GNRH-agonist or antagonist in the treatment of prostate cancer: a comparision based on oncological results. Urologia, 2016, 83(4), 173-178.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5301/uro.5000194] [PMID: 27768220]
[29]
Lu, Z.L.; Coetsee, M.; White, C.D.; Millar, R.P. Structural determinants for ligand-receptor conformational selection in a peptide G protein-coupled receptor. J. Biol. Chem., 2007, 282(24), 17921-17929.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M610413200] [PMID: 17452338]
[30]
Wu, T.J.; Mani, S.K.; Glucksman, M.J.; Roberts, J.L. Stimulation of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) gene expression in GT1-7 cells by its metabolite, LHRH-(1-5). Endocrinology, 2005, 146(1), 280-286.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2004-0560] [PMID: 15486221]
[31]
Moradi, S.V.; Varamini, P.; Toth, I. Evaluation of the biological properties and the enzymatic stability of glycosylated luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogs. AAPS J., 2015, 17(5), 1135-1143.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1208/s12248-015-9769-x] [PMID: 25956382]
[32]
Wu, T.J.; Pierotti, A.R.; Jakubowski, M.; Sheward, W.J.; Glucksman, M.J.; Smith, A.I.; King, J.C.; Fink, G.; Roberts, J.L. Endopeptidase EC 3.4.24.15 presence in the rat median eminence and hypophysial portal blood and its modulation of the luteinizing hormone surge. J. Neuroendocrinol., 1997, 9(11), 813-822.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2826.1997.00637.x] [PMID: 9419832]
[33]
Tena-Sempere, M. Hypothalamic KiSS-1: the missing link in gonadotropin feedback control? Endocrinology, 2005, 146(9), 3683-3685.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2005-0652] [PMID: 16105827]
[34]
Beneduzzi, D.; Trarbach, E.B.; Min, L.; Jorge, A.A.; Garmes, H.M.; Renk, A.C.; Fichna, M.; Fichna, P.; Arantes, K.A.; Costa, E.M.; Zhang, A.; Adeola, O.; Wen, J.; Carroll, R.S.; Mendonca, B.B.; Kaiser, U.B.; Latronico, A.C.; Silveira, L.F. Role of gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor mutations in patients with a wide spectrum of pubertal delay. Fertil. Steril., 2014, 102(3), 838-846.e2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2014.05.044] [PMID: 25016926]
[35]
Ciccone, N.A.; Xu, S.; Lacza, C.T.; Carroll, R.S.; Kaiser, U.B. Frequency-dependent regulation of follicle-stimulating hormone beta by pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone is mediated by functional antagonism of bZIP transcription factors. Mol. Cell. Biol., 2010, 30(4), 1028-1040.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/MCB.00848-09] [PMID: 20008557]
[36]
Krakauer, D.C.; Page, K.M.; Sealfon, S. Module dynamics of the GnRH signal transduction network. J. Theor. Biol., 2002, 218(4), 457-470.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5193(02)93092-4] [PMID: 12384049]
[37]
Finch, A.R.; Caunt, C.J.; Armstrong, S.P.; McArdle, C.A. Plasma membrane expression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors: regulation by peptide and nonpeptide antagonists. Mol. Endocrinol., 2010, 24(2), 423-435.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/me.2009-0343] [PMID: 20009083]
[38]
Karakoula, A.; Tovey, S.C.; Brighton, P.J.; Willars, G.B. Lack of receptor-selective effects of either RGS2, RGS3 or RGS4 on muscarinic M3- and gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor-mediated signalling through G alpha q/11. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2008, 587(1-3), 16-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.03.047] [PMID: 18457830]
[39]
Wurmbach, E.; Yuen, T.; Ebersole, B.J.; Sealfon, S.C. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor-coupled gene network organization. J. Biol. Chem., 2001, 276(50), 47195-47201.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M108716200] [PMID: 11581274]
[40]
Wojcikiewicz, R.J.; Xu, Q.; Webster, J.M.; Alzayady, K.; Gao, C. Ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of endogenous and exogenous inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors in alpha T3-1 anterior pituitary cells. J. Biol. Chem., 2003, 278(2), 940-947.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M206607200] [PMID: 12421829]
[41]
Zerani, M.; Parillo, F.; Brecchia, G.; Guelfi, G.; Dall’Aglio, C.; Lilli, L.; Maranesi, M.; Gobbetti, A.; Boiti, C. Expression of type I GNRH receptor and in vivo and in vitro GNRH-I effects in corpora lutea of pseudopregnant rabbits. J. Endocrinol., 2010, 207(3), 289-300.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/JOE-10-0109] [PMID: 20880984]
[42]
Chakrabarti, N.; Subbarao, T.; Sengupta, A.; Xu, F.; Stouffer, R.L.; Sridaran, R. Expression of mRNA and proteins for GnRH I and II and their receptors in primate corpus luteum during menstrual cycle. Mol. Reprod. Dev., 2008, 75(10), 1567-1577.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mrd.20898] [PMID: 18363198]
[43]
Larco, D.O.; Cho-Clark, M.; Mani, S.K.; Wu, T.J. The metabolite GnRH-(1-5) inhibits the migration of immortalized GnRH neurons. Endocrinology, 2013, 154(2), 783-795.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2012-1746] [PMID: 23321696]
[44]
Cho-Clark, M.; Larco, D.O.; Zahn, B.R.; Mani, S.K.; Wu, T.J. GnRH-(1-5) activates matrix metallopeptidase-9 to release epidermal growth factor and promote cellular invasion. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 2015, 415, 114-125.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2015.08.010] [PMID: 26277400]
[45]
Larco, D.O.; Semsarzadeh, N.N.; Cho-Clark, M.; Mani, S.K.; Wu, T.J. The novel actions of the metabolite GnRH-(1-5) are mediated by a G protein-coupled receptor. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne), 2013, 4, 83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2013.00083] [PMID: 23847594]
[46]
Larco, D.O.; Williams, M.; Schmidt, L.; Sabel, N.; Lange, J.; Woller, M.J.; Wu, T.J. Autoshortloop feedback regulation of pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion by its metabolite, GnRH-(1-5). Endocrine, 2015, 49(2), 470-478.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12020-014-0492-7] [PMID: 25516463]
[47]
Tsutsumi, M.; Zhou, W.; Millar, R.P.; Mellon, P.L.; Roberts, J.L.; Flanagan, C.A.; Dong, K.; Gillo, B.; Sealfon, S.C. Cloning and functional expression of a mouse gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Mol. Endocrinol., 1992, 6(7), 1163-1169.
[PMID: 1324422]
[48]
Perrin, M.H.; Bilezikjian, L.M.; Hoeger, C.; Donaldson, C.J.; Rivier, J.; Haas, Y.; Vale, W.W. Molecular and functional characterization of GnRH receptors cloned from rat pituitary and a mouse pituitary tumor cell line. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1993, 191(3), 1139-1144.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.1993.1335] [PMID: 7916600]
[49]
Chi, L.; Zhou, W.; Prikhozhan, A.; Flanagan, C.; Davidson, J.S.; Golembo, M.; Illing, N.; Millar, R.P.; Sealfon, S.C. Cloning and characterization of the human GnRH receptor. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 1993, 91(1-2), R1-R6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0303-7207(93)90278-R] [PMID: 8386108]
[50]
Illing, N.; Jacobs, G.F.; Becker, I.I.; Flanagan, C.A.; Davidson, J.S.; Eales, A.; Zhou, W.; Sealfon, S.C.; Millar, R.P. Comparative sequence analysis and functional characterization of the cloned sheep gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor reveal differences in primary structure and ligand specificity among mammalian receptors. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1993, 196(2), 745-751.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.1993.2312] [PMID: 7694577]
[51]
Weesner, G.D.; Matteri, R.L. Rapid communication: nucleotide sequence of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) receptor cDNA in the pig pituitary. J. Anim. Sci., 1994, 72(7), 1911.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2527/1994.7271911x] [PMID: 7928774]
[52]
Tensen, C.; Okuzawa, K.; Blomenröhr, M.; Rebers, F.; Leurs, R.; Bogerd, J.; Schulz, R.; Goos, H. Distinct efficacies for two endogenous ligands on a single cognate gonadoliberin receptor. Eur. J. Biochem., 1997, 243(1-2), 134-140.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1997.0134a.x] [PMID: 9030732]
[53]
Wang, L.; Bogerd, J.; Choi, H.S.; Seong, J.Y.; Soh, J.M.; Chun, S.Y.; Blomenröhr, M.; Troskie, B.E.; Millar, R.P.; Yu, W.H.; McCann, S.M.; Kwon, H.B. Three distinct types of GnRH receptor characterized in the bullfrog. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, 98(1), 361-366.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.98.1.361] [PMID: 11120886]
[54]
Sun, Y.M.; Flanagan, C.A.; Illing, N.; Ott, T.R.; Sellar, R.; Fromme, B.J.; Hapgood, J.; Sharp, P.; Sealfon, S.C.; Millar, R.P. A chicken gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor that confers agonist activity to mammalian antagonists. Identification of D-Lys(6) in the ligand and extracellular loop two of the receptor as determinants. J. Biol. Chem., 2001, 276(11), 7754-7761.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M009020200] [PMID: 11112780]
[55]
Millar, R.P.; Lu, Z.L.; Pawson, A.J.; Flanagan, C.A.; Morgan, K.; Maudsley, S.R. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors. Endocr. Rev., 2004, 25(2), 235-275.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.2003-0002] [PMID: 15082521]
[56]
Sefideh, F.A.; Moon, M.J.; Yun, S.; Hong, S.I.; Hwang, J.I.; Seong, J.Y. Local duplication of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor before two rounds of whole genome duplication and origin of the mammalian GnRH receptor. PLoS One, 2014, 9(2),e87901.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087901] [PMID: 24498396]
[57]
Ferguson, S.S. Evolving concepts in G protein-coupled receptor endocytosis: the role in receptor desensitization and signaling. Pharmacol. Rev., 2001, 53(1), 1-24.
[PMID: 11171937]
[58]
Isberg, V.; Mordalski, S.; Munk, C.; Rataj, K.; Harpsøe, K.; Hauser, A.S.; Vroling, B.; Bojarski, A.J.; Vriend, G.; Gloriam, D.E. GPCRdb: an information system for G protein-coupled receptors. Nucleic Acids Res., 2016, 44(D1), D356-D364.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkv1178] [PMID: 26582914]
[59]
Neill, J.D.; Musgrove, L.C.; Duck, L.W. Newly recognized GnRH receptors: function and relative role. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2004, 15(8), 383-392.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2004.08.005] [PMID: 15380810]
[60]
Millar, R.P. GnRH II and type II GnRH receptors. Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2003, 14(1), 35-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1043-2760(02)00016-4] [PMID: 12475610]
[61]
Morgan, K.; Conklin, D.; Pawson, A.J.; Sellar, R.; Ott, T.R.; Millar, R.P. A transcriptionally active human type II gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor gene homolog overlaps two genes in the antisense orientation on chromosome 1q.12. Endocrinology, 2003, 144(2), 423-436.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2002-220622] [PMID: 12538601]
[62]
Montagnani Marelli, M.; Manea, M.; Moretti, R.M.; Marzagalli, M.; Limonta, P. Oxime bond-linked daunorubicin-GnRH-III bioconjugates exert antitumor activity in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells via the type I GnRH receptor. Int. J. Oncol., 2015, 46(1), 243-253.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2014.2730] [PMID: 25351635]
[63]
Wu, H.M.; Huang, H.Y.; Lee, C.L.; Soong, Y.K.; Leung, P.C.; Wang, H.S. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone type II (GnRH-II) agonist regulates the motility of human decidual endometrial stromal cells: possible effect on embryo implantation and pregnancy. Biol. Reprod., 2015, 92(4), 98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.114.127324] [PMID: 25761596]
[64]
Forfar, R.; Lu, Z.L. Role of the transmembrane domain 4/extracellular loop 2 junction of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor in ligand binding and receptor conformational selection. J. Biol. Chem., 2011, 286(40), 34617-34626.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M111.240341] [PMID: 21832286]
[65]
Pawson, A.J.; Maudsley, S.; Morgan, K.; Davidson, L.; Naor, Z.; Millar, R.P. Inhibition of human type I gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRHR) function by expression of a human type II GnRHR gene fragment. Endocrinology, 2005, 146(6), 2639-2649.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2005-0133] [PMID: 15761034]
[66]
Palczewski, K.; Kumasaka, T.; Hori, T.; Behnke, C.A.; Motoshima, H.; Fox, B.A.; Le Trong, I.; Teller, D.C.; Okada, T.; Stenkamp, R.E.; Yamamoto, M.; Miyano, M. Crystal structure of rhodopsin: a G protein-coupled receptor. Science, 2000, 289(5480), 739-745.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.289.5480.739] [PMID: 10926528]
[67]
Berman, H.M.; Westbrook, J.; Feng, Z.; Gilliland, G.; Bhat, T.N.; Weissig, H.; Shindyalov, I.N.; Bourne, P.E. The protein data bank. Nucleic Acids Res., 2000, 28(1), 235-242.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/28.1.235] [PMID: 10592235]
[68]
Isberg, V.; de Graaf, C.; Bortolato, A.; Cherezov, V.; Katritch, V.; Marshall, F.H.; Mordalski, S.; Pin, J.P.; Stevens, R.C.; Vriend, G.; Gloriam, D.E. Generic GPCR residue numbers - aligning topology maps while minding the gaps. Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 2015, 36(1), 22-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2014.11.001] [PMID: 25541108]
[69]
Cvicek, V.; Goddard, W.A., III; Abrol, R. Structure-based sequence alignment of the transmembrane domains of all human gpcrs: phylogenetic, structural and functional implications. PLOS Comput. Biol., 2016, 12(3),e1004805.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004805] [PMID: 27028541]
[70]
DeVree, B.T.; Mahoney, J.P.; Vélez-Ruiz, G.A.; Rasmussen, S.G.; Kuszak, A.J.; Edwald, E.; Fung, J.J.; Manglik, A.; Masureel, M.; Du, Y.; Matt, R.A.; Pardon, E.; Steyaert, J.; Kobilka, B.K.; Sunahara, R.K. Allosteric coupling from G protein to the agonist-binding pocket in GPCRs. Nature, 2016, 535(7610), 182-186.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature18324] [PMID: 27362234]
[71]
Tzoupis, H.; Nteli, A.; Platts, J.; Mantzourani, E.; Tselios, T. Refinement of the gonadotropin releasing hormone receptor I homology model by applying molecular dynamics. J. Mol. Graph. Model., 2019, 89, 147-155.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmgm.2019.03.009] [PMID: 30889428]
[72]
Awara, W.M.; Guo, C.H.; Conn, P.M. Effects of Asn318 and Asp87Asn318 mutations on signal transduction by the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor and receptor regulation. Endocrinology, 1996, 137(2), 655-662.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo.137.2.8593815] [PMID: 8593815]
[73]
Flanagan, C.A.; Zhou, W.; Chi, L.; Yuen, T.; Rodic, V.; Robertson, D.; Johnson, M.; Holland, P.; Millar, R.P.; Weinstein, H.; Mitchell, R.; Sealfon, S.C. The functional microdomain in transmembrane helices 2 and 7 regulates expression, activation, and coupling pathways of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. J. Biol. Chem., 1999, 274(41), 28880-28886.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.274.41.28880] [PMID: 10506131]
[74]
Okada, T.; Fujiyoshi, Y.; Silow, M.; Navarro, J.; Landau, E.M.; Shichida, Y. Functional role of internal water molecules in rhodopsin revealed by X-ray crystallography. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2002, 99(9), 5982-5987.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.082666399] [PMID: 11972040]
[75]
Murakami, M.; Kouyama, T. Crystallographic analysis of the primary photochemical reaction of squid rhodopsin. J. Mol. Biol., 2011, 413(3), 615-627.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2011.08.044] [PMID: 21906602]
[76]
Blomenröhr, M.; ter Laak, T.; Kühne, R.; Beyermann, M.; Hund, E.; Bogerd, J.; Leurs, R. Chimaeric gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) peptides with improved affinity for the catfish (Clarias gariepinus) GnRH receptor. Biochem. J., 2002, 361(Pt 3), 515-523.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj3610515] [PMID: 11802781]
[77]
Coetsee, M.; Millar, R.P.; Flanagan, C.A.; Lu, Z.L. Identification of Tyr(290(6.58)) of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor as a contact residue for both GnRH I and GnRH II: importance for high-affinity binding and receptor activation. Biochemistry, 2008, 47(39), 10305-10313.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bi800911z] [PMID: 18771291]
[78]
Stewart, A.J.; Sellar, R.; Wilson, D.J.; Millar, R.P.; Lu, Z.L. Identification of a novel ligand binding residue Arg38(1.35) in the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Mol. Pharmacol., 2008, 73(1), 75-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/mol.107.040816] [PMID: 17942747]
[79]
Strader, C.D.; Fong, T.M.; Tota, M.R.; Underwood, D.; Dixon, R.A. Structure and function of G protein-coupled receptors. Annu. Rev. Biochem., 1994, 63, 101-132.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bi.63.070194.000533] [PMID: 7979235]
[80]
Costa, E.M.; Bedecarrats, G.Y.; Mendonca, B.B.; Arnhold, I.J.; Kaiser, U.B.; Latronico, A.C. Two novel mutations in the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor gene in Brazilian patients with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and normal olfaction. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2001, 86(6), 2680-2686.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.86.6.2680] [PMID: 11397871]
[81]
Bédécarrats, G.Y.; Linher, K.D.; Janovick, J.A.; Beranova, M.; Kada, F.; Seminara, S.B.; Michael Conn, P.; Kaiser, U.B. Four naturally occurring mutations in the human GnRH receptor affect ligand binding and receptor function. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 2003, 205(1-2), 51-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0303-7207(03)00201-6] [PMID: 12890567]
[82]
Tello, J.A.; Newton, C.L.; Bouligand, J.; Guiochon-Mantel, A.; Millar, R.P.; Young, J. Congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism due to GnRH receptor mutations in three brothers reveal sites affecting conformation and coupling. PLoS One, 2012, 7(6),e38456.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038456] [PMID: 22679506]
[83]
Manilall, A.; Stander, B.A.; Madziva, M.T.; Millar, R.P.; Flanagan, C.A. Glu(2.53(90)) of the GnRH receptor is part of the conserved G protein-coupled receptor structure and does not form a salt-bridge with Lys(3.32(121)). Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 2019, 481, 53-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2018.11.009] [PMID: 30476558]
[84]
Flanagan, C.A.; Rodic, V.; Konvicka, K.; Yuen, T.; Chi, L.; Rivier, J.E.; Millar, R.P.; Weinstein, H.; Sealfon, S.C. Multiple interactions of the Asp(2.61(98)) side chain of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor contribute differentially to ligand interaction. Biochemistry, 2000, 39(28), 8133-8141.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bi000085g] [PMID: 10889019]
[85]
Hoffmann, S.H.; ter Laak, T.; Kühne, R.; Reiländer, H.; Beckers, T. Residues within transmembrane helices 2 and 5 of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor contribute to agonist and antagonist binding. Mol. Endocrinol., 2000, 14(7), 1099-1115.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/mend.14.7.0483] [PMID: 10894158]
[86]
Davidson, J.S.; Flanagan, C.A.; Zhou, W.; Becker, I.I.; Elario, R.; Emeran, W.; Sealfon, S.C.; Millar, R.P. Identification of N-glycosylation sites in the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor: role in receptor expression but not ligand binding. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 1995, 107(2), 241-245.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0303-7207(94)03449-4] [PMID: 7768336]
[87]
Maione, L.; Fevre, A.; Nettore, I.C.; Manilall, A.; Francou, B.; Trabado, S.; Bouligand, J.; Guiochon-Mantel, A.; Delemer, B.; Flanagan, C.A.; Macchia, P.E.; Millar, R.P.; Young, J. Similarities and differences in the reproductive phenotypes of women with congenital hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism caused by GNRHR mutations and women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Hum. Reprod., 2018, 34(1), 137-147.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dey339]] [PMID: 30476149]
[88]
Caburet, S.; Fruchter, R.B.; Legois, B.; Fellous, M.; Shalev, S.; Veitia, R.A. A homozygous mutation of GNRHR in a familial case diagnosed with polycystic ovary syndrome. Eur. J. Endocrinol., 2017, 176(5), K9-K14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EJE-16-0968] [PMID: 28348023]
[89]
Ballesteros, J.; Kitanovic, S.; Guarnieri, F.; Davies, P.; Fromme, B.J.; Konvicka, K.; Chi, L.; Millar, R.P.; Davidson, J.S.; Weinstein, H.; Sealfon, S.C. Functional microdomains in G-protein-coupled receptors. The conserved arginine-cage motif in the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. J. Biol. Chem., 1998, 273(17), 10445-10453.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.273.17.10445] [PMID: 9553103]
[90]
Arora, K.K.; Chung, H.O.; Catt, K.J. Influence of a species-specific extracellular amino acid on expression and function of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Mol. Endocrinol., 1999, 13(6), 890-896.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/mend.13.6.0291] [PMID: 10379888]
[91]
de Roux, N.; Young, J.; Misrahi, M.; Schaison, G.; Milgrom, E. Loss of function mutations of the GnRH receptor: a new cause of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab., 1999, 12(Suppl. 1), 267-275.
[PMID: 10698591]
[92]
Lu, Z.L.; Gallagher, R.; Sellar, R.; Coetsee, M.; Millar, R.P. Mutations remote from the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor-binding sites specifically increase binding affinity for GnRH II but not GnRH I: evidence for ligand-selective, receptor-active conformations. J. Biol. Chem., 2005, 280(33), 29796-29803.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M413520200] [PMID: 15967801]
[93]
Betz, S.F.; Reinhart, G.J.; Lio, F.M.; Chen, C.; Struthers, R.S. Overlapping, nonidentical binding sites of different classes of nonpeptide antagonists for the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. J. Med. Chem., 2006, 49(2), 637-647.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm0506928] [PMID: 16420049]
[94]
Hövelmann, S.; Hoffmann, S.H.; Kühne, R.; ter Laak, T.; Reiländer, H.; Beckers, T. Impact of aromatic residues within transmembrane helix 6 of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor upon agonist and antagonist binding. Biochemistry, 2002, 41(4), 1129-1136.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bi0113162] [PMID: 11802711]
[95]
Fromme, B.J.; Katz, A.A.; Roeske, R.W.; Millar, R.P.; Flanagan, C.A. Role of aspartate7.32(302) of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor in stabilizing a high-affinity ligand conformation. Mol. Pharmacol., 2001, 60(6), 1280-1287.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/mol.60.6.1280] [PMID: 11723235]
[96]
Fromme, B.J.; Katz, A.A.; Millar, R.P.; Flanagan, C.A. Pro7.33(303) of the human GnRH receptor regulates selective binding of mammalian GnRH. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 2004, 219(1-2), 47-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2004.01.009] [PMID: 15149726]
[97]
Gonçalves, C.I.; Aragüés, J.M.; Bastos, M.; Barros, L.; Vicente, N.; Carvalho, D.; Lemos, M.C. GNRHR biallelic and digenic mutations in patients with normosmic congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Endocr. Connect., 2017, 6(6), 360-366.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EC-17-0104] [PMID: 28611058]
[98]
Davidson, J.S.; McArdle, C.A.; Davies, P.; Elario, R.; Flanagan, C.A.; Millar, R.P. Asn102 of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor is a critical determinant of potency for agonists containing C-terminal glycinamide. J. Biol. Chem., 1996, 271(26), 15510-15514.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.271.26.15510] [PMID: 8663086]
[99]
Standfuss, J.; Edwards, P.C.; D’Antona, A.; Fransen, M.; Xie, G.; Oprian, D.D.; Schertler, G.F. The structural basis of agonist-induced activation in constitutively active rhodopsin. Nature, 2011, 471(7340), 656-660.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09795] [PMID: 21389983]
[100]
Pardo, L.; Deupi, X.; Dölker, N.; López-Rodríguez, M.L.; Campillo, M. The role of internal water molecules in the structure and function of the rhodopsin family of G protein-coupled receptors. ChemBioChem, 2007, 8(1), 19-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cbic.200600429] [PMID: 17173267]
[101]
Busby, E.R.; Sherwood, N.M. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (Gnrhr) gene knock out: normal growth and development of sensory, motor and spatial orientation behavior but altered metabolism in neonatal and prepubertal mice. PLoS One, 2017, 12(3),e0174452.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174452] [PMID: 28346489]
[102]
Clarkson, J.; Busby, E.R.; Kirilov, M.; Schütz, G.; Sherwood, N.M.; Herbison, A.E. Sexual differentiation of the brain requires perinatal kisspeptin-GnRH neuron signaling. J. Neurosci., 2014, 34(46), 15297-15305.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3061-14.2014] [PMID: 25392497]
[103]
Wu, S.; Wilson, M.D.; Busby, E.R.; Isaac, E.R.; Sherwood, N.M. Disruption of the single copy gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor in mice by gene trap: severe reduction of reproductive organs and functions in developing and adult mice. Endocrinology, 2010, 151(3), 1142-1152.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2009-0598] [PMID: 20068010]
[104]
Evans, M.C.; Anderson, G.M. Neuroendocrine integration of nutritional signals on reproduction. J. Mol. Endocrinol., 2017, 58(2), R107-R128.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/JME-16-0212] [PMID: 28057770]
[105]
Louis, G.W.; Greenwald-Yarnell, M.; Phillips, R.; Coolen, L.M.; Lehman, M.N.; Myers, M.G., Jr Molecular mapping of the neural pathways linking leptin to the neuroendocrine reproductive axis. Endocrinology, 2011, 152(6), 2302-2310.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2011-0096] [PMID: 21427219]
[106]
Schally, A.V.; Arimura, A.; Baba, Y.; Nair, R.M.; Matsuo, H.; Redding, T.W.; Debeljuk, L. Isolation and properties of the FSH and LH-releasing hormone. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1971, 43(2), 393-399.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-291X(71)90766-2] [PMID: 4930860]
[107]
Matsuo, H.; Baba, Y.; Nair, R.M.; Arimura, A.; Schally, A.V. Structure of the porcine LH- and FSH-releasing hormone. I. The proposed amino acid sequence. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1971, 43(6), 1334-1339.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-291X(71)80019-0] [PMID: 4936338]
[108]
Karten, M.J.; Rivier, J.E. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog design. Structure-function studies toward the development of agonists and antagonists: rationale and perspective. Endocr. Rev., 1986, 7(1), 44-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/edrv-7-1-44] [PMID: 2420580]
[109]
Sealfon, S.C.; Weinstein, H.; Millar, R.P. Molecular mechanisms of ligand interaction with the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Endocr. Rev., 1997, 18(2), 180-205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/edrv.18.2.0295] [PMID: 9101136]
[110]
Engel, J.B.; Schally, A.V.; Dietl, J.; Rieger, L.; Hönig, A. Targeted therapy of breast and gynecological cancers with cytotoxic analogues of peptide hormones. Mol. Pharm., 2007, 4(5), 652-658.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/mp0700514] [PMID: 17705441]
[111]
McLeod, D.; Zinner, N.; Tomera, K.; Gleason, D.; Fotheringham, N.; Campion, M.; Garnick, M.B. Abarelix Study Group A phase 3, multicenter, open-label, randomized study of abarelix versus leuprolide acetate in men with prostate cancer. Urology, 2001, 58(5), 756-761.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(01)01342-5] [PMID: 11711355]
[112]
Klotz, L. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of degarelix for prostate cancer. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol., 2015, 11(11), 1795-1802.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/17425255.2015.1085506] [PMID: 26513436]
[113]
Gentilucci, L.; Tolomelli, A.; Squassabia, F. Peptides and peptidomimetics in medicine, surgery and biotechnology. Curr. Med. Chem., 2006, 13(20), 2449-2466.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/092986706777935041] [PMID: 16918365]
[114]
Fàbregues, F.; Solernou, R.; Ferreri, J.; Guimerá, M.; Peralta, S.; Casals, G.; Peñarrubia, J.; Creus, M.; Manau, D. Comparison of GnRH agonist versus luteal estradiol GnRH antagonist protocol using transdermal testosterone in poor responders. JBRA Assist. Reprod., 2019, 23(2), 130-136.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5935/1518-0557.20180090] [PMID: 30614665]
[115]
El Hachem, H.; Sonigo, C.; Benard, J.; Presse, M.; Sifer, C.; Sermondade, N.; Grynberg, M. Comparison of GnRH agonist and hCG for priming in vitro maturation cycles in cancer patients undergoing urgent fertility preservation. PLoS One, 2018, 13(12),e0208576.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208576] [PMID: 30521621]
[116]
Burnham, V.; Sundby, C.; Laman-Maharg, A.; Thornton, J. Luteinizing hormone acts at the hippocampus to dampen spatial memory. Horm. Behav., 2017, 89, 55-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.11.007] [PMID: 27847314]
[117]
Palm, R.; Chang, J.; Blair, J.; Garcia-Mesa, Y.; Lee, H.G.; Castellani, R.J.; Smith, M.A.; Zhu, X.; Casadesus, G. Down-regulation of serum gonadotropins but not estrogen replacement improves cognition in aged-ovariectomized 3xTg AD female mice. J. Neurochem., 2014, 130(1), 115-125.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jnc.12706] [PMID: 24601954]
[118]
Bowen, R.L.; Butler, T.; Atwood, C.S. Not all androgen deprivation therapies are created equal: leuprolide and the decreased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. J. Clin. Oncol., 2016, 34(23), 2800.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2015.66.3997] [PMID: 27298416]
[119]
Fujino, M.; Kobayashi, S.; Obayashi, M.; Fukuda, T.; Shinagawa, S. Synthesis and biological activities of analogs of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LH-RH). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1972, 49(3), 698-705.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-291X(72)90467-6] [PMID: 4565126]
[120]
Raivio, T.; Falardeau, J.; Dwyer, A.; Quinton, R.; Hayes, F.J.; Hughes, V.A.; Cole, L.W.; Pearce, S.H.; Lee, H.; Boepple, P.; Crowley, W.F., Jr; Pitteloud, N. Reversal of idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. N. Engl. J. Med., 2007, 357(9), 863-873.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa066494] [PMID: 17761590]
[121]
Casper, R.F. Introduction: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist triggering of final follicular maturation for in vitro fertilization. Fertil. Steril., 2015, 103(4), 865-866.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.01.012] [PMID: 25681856]
[122]
van der Linden, M.; Buckingham, K.; Farquhar, C.; Kremer, J.A.; Metwally, M. Luteal phase support for assisted reproduction cycles. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2015, 2015(7),CD009154.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009154.pub3] [PMID: 26148507]
[123]
Engmann, L.L.; Maslow, B.S.; Kaye, L.A.; Griffin, D.W.; DiLuigi, A.J.; Schmidt, D.W.; Grow, D.R.; Nulsen, J.C.; Benadiva, C.A. Low dose human chorionic gonadotropin administration at the time of gonadotropin releasing-hormone agonist trigger versus 35 h later in women at high risk of developing ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome - a prospective randomized double-blind clinical trial. J. Ovarian Res., 2019, 12(1), 8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13048-019-0483-7] [PMID: 30684970]
[124]
Platteeuw, L.; D’Hooghe, T. Novel agents for the medical treatment of endometriosis. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol., 2014, 26(4), 243-252.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/GCO.0000000000000084] [PMID: 24978852]
[125]
Gründker, C.; Günthert, A.R.; Hellriegel, M.; Emons, G. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist triptorelin inhibits estradiol-induced serum response element (SRE) activation and c-fos expression in human endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer cells. Eur. J. Endocrinol., 2004, 151(5), 619-628.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1510619] [PMID: 15538941]
[126]
Fister, S.; Günthert, A.R.; Aicher, B.; Paulini, K.W.; Emons, G.; Gründker, C. GnRH-II antagonists induce apoptosis in human endometrial, ovarian, and breast cancer cells via activation of stress-induced MAPKs p38 and JNK and proapoptotic protein Bax. Cancer Res., 2009, 69(16), 6473-6481.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-4657] [PMID: 19638591]
[127]
Labrie, F. GnRH agonists and the rapidly increasing use of combined androgen blockade in prostate cancer. Endocr. Relat. Cancer, 2014, 21(4), R301-R317.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/ERC-13-0165] [PMID: 24825748]
[128]
Kittai, A.S.; Blank, J.; Graff, J.N. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists in prostate cancer. Oncology (Williston Park), 2018, 32(12), 599-602, 604-606.
[PMID: 30632129]
[129]
Crawford, E.D.; Tombal, B.; Keane, T.; Boccardo, F.; Miller, K.; Shore, N.; Moul, J.W.; Damber, J.E.; Collette, L.; Persson, B.E. FSH suppression and tumour control in patients with prostate cancer during androgen deprivation with a GnRH agonist or antagonist. Scand. J. Urol., 2018, 52(5-6), 349-357.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21681805.2018.1522372]] [PMID: 30624128]
[130]
Rick, F.G.; Block, N.L.; Schally, A.V. Agonists of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone in prostate cancer. Expert Opin. Pharmacother., 2013, 14(16), 2237-2247.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14656566.2013.834328] [PMID: 23984804]
[131]
Cardozo, E.R.; Thomson, A.P.; Karmon, A.E.; Dickinson, K.A.; Wright, D.L.; Sabatini, M.E. Ovarian stimulation and in-vitro fertilization outcomes of cancer patients undergoing fertility preservation compared to age matched controls: a 17-year experience. J. Assist. Reprod. Genet., 2015, 32(4), 587-596.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10815-015-0428-z] [PMID: 25595540]
[132]
Tan, O.; Bukulmez, O. Biochemistry, molecular biology and cell biology of gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol., 2011, 23(4), 238-244.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/GCO.0b013e328348a3ce] [PMID: 21666463]
[133]
Pappa, E.V.; Zompra, A.A.; Spyranti, Z.; Diamantopoulou, Z.; Pairas, G.; Lamari, F.N.; Katsoris, P.; Spyroulias, G.A.; Cordopatis, P. Enzymatic stability, solution structure and antiproliferative effect on prostate cancer cells of leuprolide and new gonadotropin-releasing hormone peptide analogs. Biopolymers, 2011, 96(3), 260-272.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bip.21521] [PMID: 20632397]
[134]
Shao, W.M.; Bai, W.J.; Chen, Y.M.; Liu, L.; Wang, Y.J. Micropump infusion of gonadorelin in the treatment of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in patients with pituitary stalk interruption syndrome: cases analysis and literature review. Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban,, 2014, 46(4), 642-645.
[PMID: 25131486]
[135]
Letassy, N.A.; Thompson, D.F.; Britton, M.L.; Suda, R.R., Sr Nafarelin acetate: a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist for the treatment of endometriosis. DICP, 1990, 24(12), 1204-1209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/106002809002401212] [PMID: 2151003]
[136]
Shore, N.; Cookson, M.S.; Gittelman, M.C. Long-term efficacy and tolerability of once-yearly histrelin acetate subcutaneous implant in patients with advanced prostate cancer. BJU Int., 2012, 109(2), 226-232.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10370.x] [PMID: 21851539]
[137]
Lewis, K.A.; Eugster, E.A. Experience with the once-yearly histrelin (GnRHa) subcutaneous implant in the treatment of central precocious puberty. Drug Des. Devel. Ther., 2009, 3, 1-5.
[PMID: 19920916]
[138]
Lahlou, N.; Carel, J.C.; Chaussain, J.L.; Roger, M. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of GnRH agonists: clinical implications in pediatrics. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab., 2000, 13(Suppl. 1), 723-737.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/JPEM.2000.13.S1.723] [PMID: 10969915]
[139]
de Voogt, H.J.; Adenauer, H.; Widdra, W.G. The use of the LHRH-analogue Buserelin in the treatment of prostatic cancer. A 10-year review on 1522 patients treated in 119 centres on 4 continents. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. Suppl., 1991, 138, 131-136.
[PMID: 1838426]
[140]
Jonat, W.; Kaufmann, M.; Sauerbrei, W.; Blamey, R.; Cuzick, J.; Namer, M.; Fogelman, I.; de Haes, J.C.; de Matteis, A.; Stewart, A.; Eiermann, W.; Szakolczai, I.; Palmer, M.; Schumacher, M.; Geberth, M.; Lisboa, B. Zoladex Early Breast Cancer Research Association Study. Goserelin versus cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and fluorouracil as adjuvant therapy in premenopausal patients with node-positive breast cancer: the Zoladex early breast cancer research association study. J. Clin. Oncol., 2002, 20(24), 4628-4635.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2002.05.042] [PMID: 12488406]
[141]
Lin, Y.H.; Wen, Y.R.; Chang, Y.; Seow, K.M.; Hsieh, B.C.; Hwang, J.L.; Tzeng, C.R. Safety and efficacy of mixing cetrorelix with follitropin alfa: a randomized study. Fertil. Steril., 2010, 94(1), 179-183.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.02.062] [PMID: 19339001]
[142]
Steinberg, M. Degarelix: a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist for the management of prostate cancer. Clin. Ther., 2009, 31(Pt 2), 2312-2331.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2009.11.009] [PMID: 20110043]
[143]
Royster, G.D.; Retzloff, M.G.; Robinson, R.D.; King, J.A.; Propst, A.M. Effect of length of controlled ovarian hyperstimulation using a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist on in vitro fertilization pregnancy rates. J. Reprod. Med., 2012, 57(9-10), 415-420.
[PMID: 23091989]
[144]
Verschraegen, C.F.; Westphalen, S.; Hu, W.; Loyer, E.; Kudelka, A.; Völker, P.; Kavanagh, J.; Steger, M.; Schulz, K.D.; Emons, G. Phase II study of cetrorelix, a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone antagonist in patients with platinum-resistant ovarian cancer. Gynecol. Oncol., 2003, 90(3), 552-559.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0090-8258(03)00408-6] [PMID: 13678723]
[145]
Hosseini, S.A.; Rajabi, F.; Akbari Sari, A.; Ayati, M.; Heidari, S.; Ghamary, F. Degarelix for the treatment of advanced prostate cancer compared with GnRh-Agonists: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Med. J. Islam. Repub. Iran, 2016, 30, 317.
[PMID: 27390687]
[146]
Rick, F.G.; Schally, A.V. Bench-to-bedside development of agonists and antagonists of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone for treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Urol. Oncol., 2015, 33(6), 270-274.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2014.11.006] [PMID: 25512159]
[147]
Albertsen, P.C.; Klotz, L.; Tombal, B.; Grady, J.; Olesen, T.K.; Nilsson, J. Cardiovascular morbidity associated with gonadotropin releasing hormone agonists and an antagonist. Eur. Urol., 2014, 65(3), 565-573.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2013.10.032] [PMID: 24210090]
[148]
Engel, J.B.; Schally, A.V.; Buchholz, S.; Seitz, S.; Emons, G.; Ortmann, O. Targeted chemotherapy of endometrial, ovarian and breast cancers with cytotoxic analogs of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH). Arch. Gynecol. Obstet., 2012, 286(2), 437-442.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-012-2335-1] [PMID: 22555802]
[149]
Emons, G.; Gorchev, G.; Sehouli, J.; Wimberger, P.; Stähle, A.; Hanker, L.; Hilpert, F.; Sindermann, H.; Gründker, C.; Harter, P. Efficacy and safety of AEZS-108 (INN: zoptarelin doxorubicin acetate) an LHRH agonist linked to doxorubicin in women with platinum refractory or resistant ovarian cancer expressing LHRH receptors: a multicenter phase II trial of the ago-study group (AGO GYN 5). Gynecol. Oncol., 2014, 133(3), 427-432.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2014.03.576] [PMID: 24713545]
[150]
Günthert, A.R.; Gründker, C.; Bongertz, T.; Nagy, A.; Schally, A.V.; Emons, G. Induction of apoptosis by AN-152, a cytotoxic analog of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH), in LHRH-R positive human breast cancer cells is independent of multidrug resistance-1 (MDR-1) system. Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 2004, 87(3), 255-264.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10549-004-8806-8] [PMID: 15528968]
[151]
Miwa, K.; Hitaka, T.; Imada, T.; Sasaki, S.; Yoshimatsu, M.; Kusaka, M.; Tanaka, A.; Nakata, D.; Furuya, S.; Endo, S.; Hamamura, K.; Kitazaki, T. Discovery of 1-4-[1-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)-5-[(dimethylamino)methyl]-3-(6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)-2,4-dioxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrothieno[2,3-d]pyrimidin-6-yl]phenyl-3-methoxyurea (TAK-385) as a potent, orally active, non-peptide antagonist of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. J. Med. Chem., 2011, 54, 4998-5012.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm200216q] [PMID: 21657270]
[152]
Tukun, F.L.; Olberg, D.E.; Riss, P.J.; Haraldsen, I.; Kaass, A.; Klaveness, J. Recent development of non-peptide GnRH antagonists. Molecules, 2017, 22(12), 22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules22122188] [PMID: 29232843]
[153]
Dmowski, W.P. Danazol. A synthetic steroid with diverse biologic effects. J. Reprod. Med., 1990, 35(1)(Suppl.), 69-74.
[PMID: 2404115]
[154]
Fedele, L.; Bianchi, S.; Viezzoli, T.; Arcaini, L.; Candiani, G.B. Gestrinone versus danazol in the treatment of endometriosis. Fertil. Steril., 1989, 51(5), 781-785.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)60666-0] [PMID: 2523321]
[155]
Chen, C.; Wu, D.; Guo, Z.; Xie, Q.; Reinhart, G.J.; Madan, A.; Wen, J.; Chen, T.; Huang, C.Q.; Chen, M.; Chen, Y.; Tucci, F.C.; Rowbottom, M.; Pontillo, J.; Zhu, Y.F.; Wade, W.; Saunders, J.; Bozigian, H.; Struthers, R.S. Discovery of sodium R-(+)-4-2-[5-(2-fluoro-3-methoxyphenyl)-3-(2-fluoro-6-[trifluoromethyl]benzyl)-4 -methyl-2,6-dioxo-3,6-dihydro-2H-pyrimidin-1-yl]-1-phenylethylaminobutyrate (elagolix), a potent and orally available nonpeptide antagonist of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor. J. Med. Chem., 2008, 51, 7478-7485.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm8006454] [PMID: 19006286]
[156]
Hara, T.; Araki, H.; Kusaka, M.; Harada, M.; Cho, N.; Suzuki, N.; Furuya, S.; Fujino, M. Suppression of a pituitary-ovarian axis by chronic oral administration of a novel nonpeptide gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist, TAK-013, in cynomolgus monkeys. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2003, 88(4), 1697-1704.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2002-021065] [PMID: 12679460]
[157]
Alessandro, P.; Luigi, N.; Felice, S.; Maria, P.A.; Benedetto, M.G.; Stefano, A. Research development of a new GnRH antagonist (Elagolix) for the treatment of endometriosis: a review of the literature. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet., 2017, 295(4), 827-832.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-017-4328-6] [PMID: 28255765]
[158]
Sasaki, S.; Cho, N.; Nara, Y.; Harada, M.; Endo, S.; Suzuki, N.; Furuya, S.; Fujino, M. Discovery of a thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine-2,4-dione bearing a p-methoxyureidophenyl moiety at the 6-position: a highly potent and orally bioavailable non-peptide antagonist for the human luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptor. J. Med. Chem., 2003, 46(1), 113-124.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm020180i] [PMID: 12502365]
[159]
Boyce, M.; Clark, E.; Johnston, A.; George, M.; Davies, J.; Hibberd, M. Effects of single and repeated oral doses of TAK-013, a new non-peptide gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist, in healthy post-menopausal women. Fertil. Steril., 2002, 78, S281-S282.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(02)03947-X]
[160]
MacLean, D.B.; Shi, H.; Faessel, H.M.; Saad, F. Medical castration using the investigational oral GnRH antagonist TAK-385 (relugolix): phase 1 study in healthy males. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2015, 100(12), 4579-4587.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2770] [PMID: 26502357]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy