Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Vascular Pharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-1611
ISSN (Online): 1875-6212

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Pharmacological Management of Cardiac Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: Insights into Clinical Practice

Author(s): Dimitrios Patoulias, Konstantinos Stavropoulos, Konstantinos Imprialos, Vasilios Athyros, Michael Doumas* and Asterios Karagiannis

Volume 18, Issue 2, 2020

Page: [125 - 138] Pages: 14

DOI: 10.2174/1570161117666190426162746

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) has emerged as a growing pandemic. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) constitutes another major health problem, with coronary heart disease being the leading cause of cardiovascular death. Patients with T2DM require a multilevel therapeutic approach, both for primary and secondary prevention of CVD.

Objective: To present and summarize the most recent, highest level evidence retrieved from literature, relevant to the pharmaceutical management of CVD in T2DM.

Methods: We conducted a comprehensive search of the literature on MEDLINE from its inception till today, primarily for relevant systematic reviews, meta-analyses and randomized controlled trials.

Results: There is a trend towards more intensified therapeutic interventions in T2DM, concerning glycemic, lipid and blood pressure control. New drugs, such as sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and proprotein convertase subtilisin/ kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors might evolve as key players in the management of diabetes and its complications within the next years. Classic drugs, such as those targeting the renin-angiotensinaldosterone system, statins and aspirin remain first-line treatment options, both for primary and secondary prevention of CVD. Lifestyle interventions should always be integrated into a complete therapeutic strategy in diabetic patients. Novel drugs, such as finerenone and LCZ696 have provided significant results in cardiovascular outcome studies; however, their role in T2DM has to be further elucidated.

Conclusion: Pharmaceutical approach of CVD in T2DM is multilevel and complex. Drug classes featuring pleiotropic effects may boost our armamentarium in the fight against CVD.

Keywords: Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, mortality, prevention, insulin, glycemic control.

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Unnikrishnan R, Pradeepa R, Joshi SR, et al. Type 2 diabetes: Demystifying the global epidemic. Diabetes 2017; 66: 1432-42.
[2]
Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2018 update: A report from The American heart association. Circulation 2018; 137: e67-e492.
[3]
De Rosa S, Arcidiacono B, Chiefari E, et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease: Genetic and epigenetic links. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9: 2.
[4]
Tancredi M, Rosengren A, Svensson AM, et al. Excess mortality among persons with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2015; 373: 1720-32.
[5]
Rawshani A, Rawshani A, Franzén S, et al. Risk Factors, mortality, and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 633-44.
[6]
Fox CS, Golden SH, Anderson C, et al. Update on prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus in light of recent evidence: A scientific statement from the american heart association and the American diabetes association. Diabetes Care 2015; 38: 1777-803.
[7]
Newman JD, Schwartzbard AZ, Weintraub HS, Goldberg IJ, Berger JS. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 70: 883-93.
[8]
Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 2545-59.
[9]
Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Genuth S, et al. Long-term effects of intensive glucose lowering on cardiovascular outcomes. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 818-28.
[10]
Riddle MC, Ambrosius WT, Brillon DJ, et al. Epidemiologic relationships between A1C and all-cause mortality during a median 3.4-year follow-up of glycemic treatment in the ACCORD trial. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 983-90.
[11]
Hayward RA, Reaven PD, Wiitala WL, et al. Follow-up of glycemic control and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 2197-206.
[12]
Griffin SJ, Leaver JK, Irving GJ. Impact of metformin on cardiovascular disease: A meta-analysis of randomized trials among people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2017; 60: 1620-9.
[13]
Boussageon R, Supper I, Bejan-Angoulvant T, et al. Reappraisal of metformin efficacy in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med 2012; 9: e1001204
[14]
Bain S, Druyts E, Balijepalli C, et al. Cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality associated with sulphonylureas compared with other antihyperglycaemic drugs: A Bayesian meta-analysis of survival data. Diabetes Obes Metab 2017; 19: 329-35.
[15]
Varvaki-Rados D, Catani Pinto L. ReckRemonti L, et al. The Association between sulfonylurea use and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: A meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized clinical trials. PLoS Med 2016; 13: e1001992
[16]
Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 2560-72.
[17]
Liao HW, Saver JL, Wu YL, et al. Pioglitazone and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with insulin resistance, pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2017; 7: e013927
[18]
de Jong M, van der Worp HB, van der Graaf Y, et al. Pioglitazone and the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. A meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2017; 16: 134.
[19]
Zheng SL, Roddick AJ, Aghar-Jaffar R, et al. Association between use of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide 1 agonists, and dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors with all-cause mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2018; 319: 1580-91.
[20]
Savarese G, D’Amore C, Federici M, et al. Effects of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors and sodium-glucose linked cotransporter-2 inhibitors on cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 2016; 220: 595-601.
[21]
Abbas AS, Dehbi HM, Ray KK. Cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular safety of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibition: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled cardiovascular outcome trials. Diabetes Obes Metab 2016; 18: 295-9.
[22]
Elgendy IY, Mahmoud AN, Barakat AF, et al. Cardiovascular safety of dipeptidyl-peptidase iv inhibitors: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2017; 17: 143-55.
[23]
Guo WQ, Li L, Su Q, Dai WR, Ye ZL. Effect of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors on heart failure: A network meta-analysis. Value Health 2017; 20: 1427-30.
[24]
Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2016; 375: 311-22.
[25]
Marso SP, Bain SC, Consoli A, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2016; 375: 1834-44.
[26]
Hernandez AF, Green JB, Janmohamed S, et al. Albiglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Harmony Outcomes): A double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2018; 392: 1519-29.
[27]
Holman RR, Bethel MA, Mentz RJ, et al. Effects of once-weekly exenatide on cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2017; 377: 1228-39.
[28]
Margulies KB, Hernandez AF, Redfield MM, et al. Effects of liraglutide on clinical stability among patients with advanced heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2016; 316: 500-8.
[29]
Pfeffer MA, Claggett B, Diaz R, et al. Lixisenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med 2015; 373: 2247-57.
[30]
Monami M, Zannoni S, Pala L, et al. Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on mortality and cardiovascular events: A comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Cardiol 2017; 240: 414-21.
[31]
Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, et al. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2015; 373: 2117-28.
[32]
Neal B, Perkovic V, Mahaffey KW, et al. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2017; 377: 644-57.
[33]
Wiviott SD, Raz I, Bonaca MP, et al. Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2019; 380: 347-57.
[34]
Monami M, Dicembrini I, Mannucci E. Effects of SGLT-2 inhibitors on mortality and cardiovascular events: A comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Acta Diabetol 2017; 54: 19-36.
[35]
Saad M, Mahmoud AN, Elgendy IY, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes with sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors in patients with type II diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials. Int J Cardiol 2017; 228: 352-8.
[36]
Rådholm K, Wu JH, Wong MG, et al. Effects of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors on cardiovascular disease, death and safety outcomes in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2018; 140: 118-28.
[37]
Lee G, Oh SW, Hwang SS, et al. Comparative effectiveness of oral antidiabetic drugs in preventing cardiovascular mortality and morbidity: A network meta-analysis. PLoS One 2017; 12: e0177646
[38]
Bundhun PK, Li N, Chen MH. Adverse cardiovascular outcomes between insulin-treated and non-insulin treated diabetic patients after percutaneous coronary intervention: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2015; 14: 135.
[39]
American Diabetes Association. Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018. Diabetes Care 2018; 41(Suppl. 1): S73-85.
[40]
Munnee K, Bundhun PK, Quan H, Tang Z. Comparing the clinical outcomes between insulin-treated and non-insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus after coronary artery bypass surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95: e3006
[41]
Li J, Tong Y, Zhang Y, et al. Effects on all-cause mortality and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes by comparing insulin with oral hypoglycemic agent therapy: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Ther 2016; 38: 372-86.
[42]
Anyanwagu U, Mamza J, Donnelly R, et al. Comparison of cardiovascular and metabolic outcomes in people with type 2 diabetes on insulin versus non-insulin glucose-lowering therapies (GLTs): A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2016; 121: 69-85.
[43]
Siraj ES, Rubin DJ, Riddle MC, et al. Insulin dose and cardiovascular mortality in the ACCORD trial. Diabetes Care 2015; 38: 2000-8.
[44]
Cushman WC, Evans GW, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 1575-85.
[45]
Wright JT Jr, Williamson JD, Whelton PK, et al. A randomized trial of intensive versus standard blood-pressure control. N Engl J Med 2015; 373: 2103-16.
[46]
Bress AP, King JB, Kreider KE, et al. Effect of intensive versus standard blood pressure treatment according to baseline prediabetes status: A post hoc analysis of a randomized trial. Diabetes Care 2017; 40: 1401-8.
[47]
Buckley LF, Dixon DL, Wohlford GF IV, et al. Intensive versus standard blood pressure control in SPRINT-Eligible participants of ACCORD-BP. Diabetes Care 2017; 40: 1733-8.
[48]
Thomopoulos C, Parati G, Zanchetti A. Effects of blood-pressure-lowering treatment on outcome incidence in hypertension: 10 - Should blood pressure management differ in hypertensive patients with and without diabetes mellitus? Overview and meta-analyses of randomized trials. J Hypertens 2017; 35: 922-44.
[49]
Remonti LR, Dias S, Leitão CB, et al. Classes of antihypertensive agents and mortality in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes-Network meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Diabetes Complications 2016; 30: 1192-200.
[50]
de Boer IH, Bangalore S, Benetos A, et al. Diabetes and hypertension: a position statement by the American diabetes association. Diabetes Care 2017; 40: 1273-84.
[51]
de Boer IH, Bakris G, Cannon CP. Individualizing blood pressure targets for people with diabetes and hypertension: Comparing the ADA and the ACC/AHA recommendations. JAMA 2018; 319: 1319-20.
[52]
Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: The task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology and the European Society of Hypertension: The task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology and the European Society of Hypertension. J Hypertens 2018; 36: 1953-2041.
[53]
American Diabetes Association. Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018. Diabetes Care 2018; 41(Suppl. 1): S86-S104.
[54]
Ruilope LM, Solini A. RAS blockade for every diabetic patient: pro and con. Diabetes Care 2011; 34(Suppl. 2): S320-4.
[55]
Persson F, Lindhardt M, Rossing P, et al. Prevention of microalbuminuria using early intervention with renin-angiotensin system inhibitors in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2016; 17: pii: 1470320316652047
[56]
Bangalore S, Fakheri R, Toklu B, Messerli FH. Diabetes mellitus as a compelling indication for use of renin angiotensin system blockers: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. BMJ 2016; 352: i438.
[57]
Cheng J, Zhang W, Zhang X, et al. Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular deaths and cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med 2014; 174: 773-85.
[58]
Nakao YM, Teramukai S, Tanaka S, et al. Effects of renin-angiotensin system blockades on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2012; 96: 68-75.
[59]
Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT) Collaboration, Baigent C, Blackwell L, Emberson J, et al. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: A meta-analysis of data from 170,000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet 2010; 376: 1670-81.
[60]
Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): Multicentre randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 685-96.
[61]
Kearney PM, Blackwell L, Collins R, et al. Efficacy of cholesterol-lowering therapy in 18,686 people with diabetes in 14 randomized trials of statins: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2008; 371: 117-25.
[62]
Mills EJ, Wu P, Chong G, et al. Efficacy and safety of statin treatment for cardiovascular disease: A network meta-analysis of 170,255 patients from 76 randomized trials. QJM 2011; 104: 109-24.
[63]
Zhou Y, Yuan Y, Cai RR, et al. Statin therapy on glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2013; 14: 1575-84.
[64]
Swerdlow DI, Preiss D, Kuchenbaecker KB, et al. HMG-coenzyme A reductase inhibition, type 2 diabetes, and bodyweight: Evidence from genetic analysis and randomized trials. Lancet 2015; 385: 351-61.
[65]
Wang S, Cai R, Yuan Y, et al. Association between reductions in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol with statin therapy and the risk of new-onset diabetes: A meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2017; 7: 39982.
[66]
Ginsberg HN, Elam MB, Lovato LC, et al. Effects of combination lipid therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 1563-74.
[67]
Elam M, Lovato L, Ginsberg H. The ACCORD-Lipid study: Implications for treatment of dyslipidemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Lipidol 2011; 6: 9-20.
[68]
Ginsberg HN. The ACCORD (Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes) lipid trial: What we learn from subgroup analyses. Diabetes Care 2011; 34(Suppl. 2): S107-8.
[69]
Papademetriou V, Lovato L, Tsioufis C, et al. Effects of high density lipoprotein raising therapies on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, with or without renal impairment: The action to control cardiovascular risk in diabetes study. Am J Nephrol 2017; 45: 136-45.
[70]
Saha SA, Arora RR. Fibrates in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A pooled meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials. Int J Cardiol 2010; 141: 157-66.
[71]
Achimastos A, Alexandrides T, Alexopoulos D, et al. Expert consensus on the rational clinical use of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors. Hormones (Athens) 2016; 15: 8-14.
[72]
Sabatine MS, Giugliano RP, Keech AC, et al. Evolocumab and clinical outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 1713-22.
[73]
Robinson JG, Farnier M, Krempf M, et al. Efficacy and safety of alirocumab in reducing lipids and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 1489-99.
[74]
Sattar N, Preiss D, Robinson JG, et al. Lipid-lowering efficacy of the PCSK9 inhibitor evolocumab (AMG 145) in patients with type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2016; 4: 403-10.
[75]
de Carvalho LSF, Campos AM, Sposito AC. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (pcsk9) inhibitors and incident type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis with over 96,000 patient-years. Diabetes Care 2018; 41: 364-7.
[76]
El Khoury P, Roussel R, Fumeron F, et al. Plasma proprotein-convertase-subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) and cardiovascular events in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2018; 20: 943-53.
[77]
Cannon CP, Blazing MA, Giugliano RP, et al. Ezetimibe added to statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 2387-97.
[78]
Le NA, Tomassini JE, Tershakovec AM, et al. Effect of switching from statin monotherapy to ezetimibe/simvastatin combination therapy compared with other intensified lipid-lowering strategies on lipoprotein subclasses in diabetic patients with symptomatic cardiovascular disease. J Am Heart Assoc 2015; 4: e001675
[79]
Sakamoto K, Kawamura M, Kohro T, et al. Effect of ezetimibe on ldl-c lowering and atherogenic lipoprotein profiles in type 2 diabetic patients poorly controlled by statins. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0138332
[80]
Sakamoto K, Kawamura M, Watanabe T, et al. Effect of ezetimibe add-on therapy over 52 weeks extension analysis of prospective randomized trial (RESEARCH study) in type 2 diabetes subjects. Lipids Health Dis 2017; 16: 122.
[81]
Saito I, Azuma K, Kakikawa T, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effect of ezetimibe on glucose metabolism in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypercholesterolemia. Lipids Health Dis 2015; 14: 40.
[82]
Ding Y, Li Y, Wen A. Effect of niacin on lipids and glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials. Clin Nutr 2015; 34: 838-44.
[83]
Masana L, Cabré A, Heras M, et al. Remarkable quantitative and qualitative differences in HDL after niacin or fenofibrate therapy in type 2 diabetic patients. Atherosclerosis 2015; 238: 213-9.
[84]
Landray MJ, Haynes R, Hopewell JC, et al. Effects of extended-release niacin with laropiprant in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2014; 371: 203-12.
[85]
Angiolillo DJ. Antiplatelet therapy in diabetes: Efficacy and limitations of current treatment strategies and future directions. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 531-40.
[86]
Younis N, Williams S, Ammori B, et al. Role of aspirin in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010; 11: 1459-66.
[87]
Zhang C, Sun A, Zhang P, et al. Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes: A meta-analysis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2010; 87: 211-8.
[88]
Seshasai SR, Wijesuriya S, Sivakumaran R, et al. Effect of aspirin on vascular and nonvascular outcomes: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 2012; 172: 209-16.
[89]
Saito Y, Okada S, Ogawa H, et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: 10-Year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Circulation 2017; 135: 659-70.
[90]
ASCEND study collaborative group. Effects of aspirin for primary prevention in persons with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 1529-39.
[91]
McNeil JJ, Wolfe R, Woods RL, et al. Effect of aspirin on cardiovascular events and bleeding in the healthy elderly. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 1509-18.
[92]
McNeil JJ, Nelson MR, Woods RL, et al. Effect of aspirin on all-cause mortality in the healthy elderly. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 1519-28.
[93]
Valentine N, Van de Laar FA, et al. Adenosine-diphosphate (ADP) receptor antagonists for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 11: CD005449
[94]
Squizzato A, Bellesini M, Takeda A, et al. Clopidogrel plus aspirin versus aspirin alone for preventing cardiovascular events. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 12: CD005158
[95]
Bundhun PK, Qin T, Chen MH. Comparing the effectiveness and safety between triple antiplatelet therapy and dual antiplatelet therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients after coronary stents implantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2015; 15: 118.
[96]
Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2001-15.
[97]
Franchi F, Rollini F, Aggarwal N, et al. Pharmacodynamic comparison of prasugrel versus ticagrelor in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease: The OPTIMUS (Optimizing Antiplatelet Therapy in Diabetes Mellitus)-4 study. Circulation 2016; 134: 780-92.
[98]
Verdoia M, Schaffer A, Barbieri L, et al. Benefits from new ADP antagonists as compared with clopidogrel in patients with stable angina or acute coronary syndrome undergoing invasive management: A meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2014; 63: 339-50.
[99]
Bundhun PK, Yanamala CM, Huang F. Should a prolonged duration of dual anti-platelet therapy be recommended to patients with diabetes mellitus following percutaneous coronary intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 studies. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2016; 16: 161.
[100]
Sharma A, Garg A, Elmariah S, et al. Duration of dual antiplatelet therapy following drug-eluting stent implantation in diabetic and non-diabetic patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2018; 60: 500-7.
[101]
Ajala O, English P, Pinkney J. Systematic review and meta-analysis of different dietary approaches to the management of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 2013; 97: 505-16.
[102]
Esposito K, Maiorino MI, Bellastella G, et al. A journey into a Mediterranean diet and type 2 diabetes: A systematic review with meta-analyses. BMJ Open 2015; 5: e008222
[103]
Juanola-Falgarona M, Salas-Salvadó J, Ibarrola-Jurado N, et al. Effect of the glycemic index of the diet on weight loss, modulation of satiety, inflammation and other metabolic risk factors: A randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2014; 100: 27-35.
[104]
Wahid A, Manek N, Nichols M, et al. Quantifying the association between physical activity and cardiovascular disease and diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Heart Assoc 2016; 5: pii: e002495
[105]
Thomas DE, Elliott EJ, Naughton GA. Exercise for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; 3: CD002968
[106]
Lee JH, Lee R, Hwang MH, et al. The effects of exercise on vascular endothelial function in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2018; 10: 15.
[107]
Way KL, Keating SE, Baker MK, et al. The effect of exercise on vascular function and stiffness in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Diabetes Rev 2016; 12: 369-83.
[108]
Kokkinos PF, Faselis C, Myers J, et al. Interactive effects of fitness and statin treatment on mortality risk in veterans with dyslipidaemia: A cohort study. Lancet 2013; 381: 394-9.
[109]
Kokkinos P, Myers J, Nylen E, et al. Exercise capacity and all-cause mortality in African American and Caucasian men with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 623-8.
[110]
Kokkinos P, Myers J, Faselis C, et al. BMI-mortality paradox and fitness in African American and Caucasian men with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2012; 35: 1021-7.
[111]
Chen L, Pei JH, Kuang J, et al. Effect of lifestyle intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis. Metabolism 2015; 64: 338-47.
[112]
Kar D, Gillies C, Zaccardi F, et al. Relationship of cardiometabolic parameters in non-smokers, current smokers, and quitters in diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2016; 15: 158.
[113]
Nagrebetsky A, Brettell R, Roberts N, et al. Smoking cessation in adults with diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of data from randomized controlled trials. BMJ Open 2014; 4: e004107
[114]
Filippatos G, Anker SD, Böhm M, et al. A randomized controlled study of finerenone vs. eplerenone in patients with worsening chronic heart failure and diabetes mellitus and/or chronic kidney disease. Eur Heart J 2016; 37: 2105-14.
[115]
Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Chan JC, et al. Effect of finerenone on albuminuria in patients with diabetic nephropathy: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015; 314: 884-94.
[116]
Pei H, Wang W, Zhao D, et al. The use of a novel non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist finerenone for the treatment of chronic heart failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2018; 97: e0254
[117]
Faselis C, Boutari C, Doumas M, et al. Novel drugs for hypertension and heart failure: Struggling for a place under the sun. Curr Pharm Des 2017; 23: 1540-50.
[118]
Wang BH, von Lueder TG, Kompa AR, et al. Combined angiotensin receptor blockade and neprilysin inhibition attenuates angiotensin-II mediated renal cellular collagen synthesis. Int J Cardiol 2015; 186: 104-5.
[119]
von Lueder TG, Wang BH, Kompa AR, et al. Angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor LCZ696 attenuates cardiac remodeling and dysfunction after MI by reducing cardiac fibrosis and hypertrophy. Circ Heart Fail 2015; 8: 71-8.
[120]
McMurray JJ, Packer M, Desai AS, et al. Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure. N Engl J Med 2014; 371: 993-1004.
[121]
Stavropoulos K, Imprialos KP, Doumas M. Sacubitril/valsartan instead of renin-angiotensin system inhibition alone: A step forward in resistant hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2018; 20: 65-8.
[122]
Seferovic JP, Claggett B, Seidelmann SB, et al. Effect of sacubitril/valsartan versus enalapril on glycaemic control in patients with heart failure and diabetes: A post-hoc analysis from the PARADIGM-HF trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2017; 5: 333-40.
[123]
Ridker PM, Everett BM, Thuren T, et al. Anti-inflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease. N Engl J Med 2017; 377: 1119-31.
[124]
Ridker PM, Howard CP, Walter V, et al. Effects of interleukin-1β inhibition with canakinumab on hemoglobin A1c, lipids, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and fibrinogen: A phase IIb randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Circulation 2012; 126: 2739-48.
[125]
Hensen J, Howard CP, Walter V, et al. Impact of interleukin-1β antibody (canakinumab) on glycaemic indicators in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: Results of secondary endpoints from a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Diabetes Metab 2013; 39: 524-31.
[126]
Choudhury RP, Birks JS, Mani V, et al. Arterial effects of canakinumab in patients with atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes or glucose intolerance. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016; 68: 1769-80.
[127]
Capodanno D, Angiolillo DJ. Canakinumab for secondary prevention of atherosclerotic disease. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2018; 18: 215-20.
[128]
Lorenzatti A, Servato ML. Role of anti-inflammatory interventions in coronary artery disease: Understanding the Canakinumab Anti-inflammatory Thrombosis Outcomes Study (CANTOS). Eur Cardiol 2018; 13: 38-41.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
43
7
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy