Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Diabetes Reviews

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-3998
ISSN (Online): 1875-6417

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
General Review Article

Diabetes Mellitus and Renal Function: Current Medical Research and Opinion

Author(s): Moyad Shahwan*, Nageeb Hassan, Rima Ahd Shaheen, Ahmed Gaili, Ammar Abdulrahman Jairoun, Monzer Shahwan, Osama Najjar and Shazia Jamshed

Volume 17, Issue 9, 2021

Published on: 11 January, 2021

Article ID: e011121190176 Pages: 11

DOI: 10.2174/1573399817999210111205532

Price: $65

Abstract

Diabetes mellitus (DM), which is defined as high blood glucose level, is a major public health issue worldwide. An enormous amount of data has been gathered regarding DM as populations have been living with it for more than a decade; however, continually updating our knowledge of DM remains important. Comorbidities are among the major challenges associated with DM. Poorly controlled DM, especially type 2 DM (T2DM), is considered a risk factor for many diseases, including but not limited to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Complications might appear over time as the aging process changes body functions; moreover, a significant number of antidiabetic medications are eventually cleared by the kidneys, thereby increasing the burden on kidney function and placing diabetic patients at risk. The significantly high number of patients with uncontrolled diabetes resulting from kidney disease shows the impact of this condition on the quality of life of patients. This review presents an overview of the pathophysiology, etiology, and prevalence of CKD and abnormal renal parameters correlated with poorly controlled T2DM, with an emphasis on clinical studies involving the association between vitamin D insufficiency/deficiency and CKD among patients with T2DM.

Keywords: Diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, vitamin D deficiency, high blood glucose level, kidney function.

[1]
American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2014; 37(Suppl. 1): S81-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc14-S081] [PMID: 24357215]
[2]
Zaccardi F, Webb DR, Yates T, Davies MJ. Pathophysiology of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a 90-year perspective. Postgrad Med J 2016; 92(1084): 63-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2015-133281] [PMID: 26621825]
[3]
Chen L, Magliano DJ, Zimmet PZ. The worldwide epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus--present and future perspectives. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011; 8(4): 228-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2011.183] [PMID: 22064493]
[4]
Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG, et al. Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001; 344(18): 1343-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200105033441801] [PMID: 11333990]
[5]
Iglay K, Hannachi H, Joseph Howie P, et al. Prevalence and co-prevalence of comorbidities among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr Med Res Opin 2016; 32(7): 1243-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2016.1168291] [PMID: 26986190]
[6]
Colosia AD, Palencia R, Khan S. Prevalence of hypertension and obesity in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in observational studies: a systematic literature review. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2013; 6: 327-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/DMSO.S51325] [PMID: 24082791]
[7]
Chehade JM, Gladysz M, Mooradian AD. Dyslipidemia in type 2 diabetes: prevalence, pathophysiology, and management. Drugs 2013; 73(4): 327-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40265-013-0023-5] [PMID: 23479408]
[8]
Bilal Mahmod Alqudah MD. prevalence of hypertension among diabetic type 2 patients attending medical clinic at prince Hashem bin Abdullatif hospital in AQABA. Indian J Med Res Pharma Sci 2017; 4(6): 2349-5340.
[9]
Cushman WC, Evans GW, Byington RP, et al. ACCORD Study Group. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2010; 362(17): 1575-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1001286] [PMID: 20228401]
[10]
Shahwan MJ, Gacem SA, Zaidi SK. Prevalence of Diabetic Nephropathy and associated risk factors among type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in Ramallah, Palestine. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2019; 13(2): 1491-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2019.02.017] [PMID: 31336511]
[11]
Hadjadj S, Cariou B, Fumeron F, et al. French JDRF Diabetic Nephropathy Collaborative Research Initiative (search for genes determining time to onset of ESRD in T1D patients with proteinuria) and the SURDIAGENE and DIABHYCAR study groups. Death, end-stage renal disease and renal function decline in patients with diabetic nephropathy in French cohorts of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2016; 59(1): 208-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-015-3785-3] [PMID: 26486355]
[12]
Macisaac RJ, Ekinci EI, Jerums G. Markers of and risk factors for the development and progression of diabetic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2014; 63(2)(Suppl. 2): S39-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.10.048] [PMID: 24461729]
[13]
Jamal Shahwan M, Hassan NAG, Shaheen RA. Assessment of kidney function and associated risk factors among type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2019; 13(4): 2661-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2019.07.025] [PMID: 31405691]
[14]
Shahwan MJ, Khattab AH, Khattab MH, Jairoun AA. Association between abnormal serum hepatic enzymes, lipid levels and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Obesity Medicine 2019; 16: 100137.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.obmed.2019.100137]
[15]
Tiwari AK, Madhusudanarao J. Diabetes mellitus and multiple therapeutic approaches of phytochemicals: Present status and future prospects. Curr Sci Vol 2002; 83: 30-8.
[16]
American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2003; 26(Suppl. 1): S33-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.2007.S33] [PMID: 12502618]
[17]
Tang YH, Pang SM, Chan MF, Yeung GS, Yeung VT. Health literacy, complication awareness, and diabetic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Adv Nurs 2008; 62(1): 74-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04526.x] [PMID: 18352966]
[18]
American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2013; 36(Suppl. 1): S67-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc13-S067] [PMID: 23264425]
[19]
2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care 2016; 39(Suppl. 1): S13-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc16-S005] [PMID: 26696675]
[20]
Standards of medical care in diabetes—2016. Diabetes Care 2016; 39(Suppl. 1): S1-S106.
[21]
Todd JA. Etiology of type 1 diabetes. Immunity 2010; 32(4): 457-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2010.04.001] [PMID: 20412756]
[22]
Stankov K, Benc D, Draskovic D. Genetic and epigenetic factors in etiology of diabetes mellitus type 1. Pediatrics 2013; 132(6): 1112-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-1652] [PMID: 24190679]
[23]
Shahwan MJ, Khattab MH, Jairoun AA. Association of serum calcium level with waist circumference and other biochemical health-care predictors among patients with type 2 diabetes. J Pharm Bioallied Sci 2019; 11(3): 292-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/jpbs.JPBS_137_19] [PMID: 31555037]
[24]
Aleksandrov N, Audibert F, Bedard MJ, Mahone M, Goffinet F, Kadoch IJ. Gestational diabetes insipidus: a review of an underdiagnosed condition. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2010; 32(3): 225-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1701-2163(16)34448-6] [PMID: 20500966]
[25]
Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Etiology of insulin resistance. Am J Med 2006; 119(5)(Suppl. 1): S10-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.01.009] [PMID: 16563942]
[26]
Pories WJ, Albrecht RJ. Etiology of type II diabetes mellitus: role of the foregut. World J Surg 2001; 25(4): 527-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002680020348] [PMID: 11344408]
[27]
Zheng Y, Ley SH, Hu FB. Global aetiology and epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its complications. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2018; 14(2): 88-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2017.151] [PMID: 29219149]
[28]
Barroso I. Genetics of Type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med 2005; 22(5): 517-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-5491.2005.01550.x] [PMID: 15842505]
[29]
Prasad RB, Groop L. Genetics of type 2 diabetes-pitfalls and possibilities. Genes (Basel) 2015; 6(1): 87-123.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes6010087] [PMID: 25774817]
[30]
Donath MY, Shoelson SE. Type 2 diabetes as an inflammatory disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2011; 11(2): 98-107.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nri2925] [PMID: 21233852]
[31]
Lam DW, LeRoith D. The worldwide diabetes epidemic. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2012; 19(2): 93-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e328350583a] [PMID: 22262000]
[32]
Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: a pooled analysis of 751 population-based studies with 4.4 million participants. Lancet 2016; 387(10027): 1513-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00618-8] [PMID: 27061677]
[33]
Patterson C, Guariguata L, Dahlquist G, Soltész G, Ogle G, Silink M. Diabetes in the young - a global view and worldwide estimates of numbers of children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014; 103(2): 161-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2013.11.005] [PMID: 24331235]
[34]
Khan MAB, Hashim MJ, King JK, Govender RD, Mustafa H, Al Kaabi J. Epidemiology of type 2 diabetes–global burden of disease and forecasted trends. J Epidemiol Glob Health 2020; 10(1): 107-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/jegh.k.191028.001] [PMID: 32175717]
[35]
Ginter E, Simko V. Global prevalence and future of diabetes mellitus.Diabetes. New York, NY: Springer 2013; pp. 35-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5441-0_5]
[36]
Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2010; 87(1): 4-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.007] [PMID: 19896746]
[37]
Shahwan MJ, Jairoun AA, Farajallah A, Shanabli S. Prevalence of dyslipidemia and factors affecting lipid profile in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2019; 13(4): 2387-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2019.06.009] [PMID: 31405648]
[38]
Tamayo T, Rosenbauer J, Wild SH, et al. Diabetes in Europe: an update. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014; 103(2): 206-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2013.11.007] [PMID: 24300019]
[39]
Meeks KA, Freitas-Da-Silva D, Adeyemo A, et al. Disparities in type 2 diabetes prevalence among ethnic minority groups resident in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intern Emerg Med 2016; 11(3): 327-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11739-015-1302-9] [PMID: 26370238]
[40]
Shahwan M, Hassan N, Noshi A, Banu N. Prevalence and risk factors of vitamin B12 deficiency among patients with type 2 diabetes on metformin: a study from northern region of United Arab Emirates. Asian J Pharmaceut Clin Res 2018; 11(8): 225.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2018.v11i8.26052]
[41]
King H, Zimmet P. Trends in the prevalence and incidence of diabetes: non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. World health statistics quarterly Rapport trimestriel de statistiques sanitaires mondiales 1988; 41(3-4): 190-6.
[42]
Shahwan M, Jairoun AA, Khattab MH. Association of Serum Calcium Level with Body Mass Index among Type 2 Diabetes Patients in Palestine. Obes Med 2019; 15: 100110.
[43]
Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Ma RCW. Diabetes in south-east Asia: An update. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014; 103(2): 231-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2013.11.011] [PMID: 24300015]
[44]
Ramachandran A, Ma RCW, Snehalatha C. Diabetes in Asia. Lancet 2010; 375(9712): 408-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60937-5] [PMID: 19875164]
[45]
Tran F, Stone M, Huang CY, et al. Population-based incidence of diabetes in Australian youth aged 10-18 yr: increase in type 1 diabetes but not type 2 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes 2014; 15(8): 585-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pedi.12131] [PMID: 24636643]
[46]
Magliano DJ, Barr EL, Zimmet PZ, et al. Glucose indices, health behaviors, and incidence of diabetes in Australia: the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study. Diabetes Care 2008; 31(2): 267-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc07-0912] [PMID: 17989310]
[47]
Karahalios A, Somarajah G, Hamblin PS, Karunajeewa H, Janus ED. Quantifying the hidden healthcare cost of diabetes mellitus in Australian hospital patients. Intern Med J 2018; 48(3): 286-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/imj.13685] [PMID: 29193646]
[48]
Yisahak SF, Beagley J, Hambleton IR, Narayan KM. IDF Diabetes Atlas. Diabetes in North America and the Caribbean: an update. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014; 103(2): 223-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2013.11.009] [PMID: 24321468]
[49]
Aschner P, Aguilar-Salinas C, Aguirre L, et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas. Diabetes in South and Central America: an update. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014; 103(2): 238-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2013.11.010] [PMID: 24439209]
[50]
Badran M, Laher I. Type II diabetes mellitus in Arabic-speaking countries. Int J Endocrinol 2012; 2012: 902873.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/902873] [PMID: 22851968]
[51]
Abuyassin B, Laher I. Diabetes epidemic sweeping the Arab world. World J Diabetes 2016; 7(8): 165-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v7.i8.165] [PMID: 27114755]
[52]
Shahwan MJ, Ajlouni K. Prevalence and risk factors of vitamin D deficiency among type 2 diabetics and non diabetics female patients attending the national center for diabetes, endocrinology and genetics in Jordan. University of Jordan 2008.
[53]
Ali D, Abduelkarem AR, Shahwan M. Evaluation of factors associated with inadequate glycemic control and some other health care indicators among patients with type 2 diabetes in Ramallah. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci 2013; 4(3): 445-51.
[54]
Ahmed AA, Elsharief E, Alsharief A. The diabetic foot in the Arab world. J Diab Foot Comp 2011; 3(3): 55-61.
[55]
Boutayeb A, Lamlili ME, Boutayeb W, Maamri A, Ziyyat A, Ramdani N. The rise of diabetes prevalence in the Arab region. Open J Epidemiol 2012; 2(02): 55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojepi.2012.22009]
[56]
Ahmed AM. History of diabetes mellitus. Saudi Med J 2002; 23(4): 373-8.
[PMID: 11953758]
[57]
Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, et al. American Diabetes Association; European Association for Study of Diabetes. Medical management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation and adjustment of therapy: a consensus statement of the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32(1): 193-203.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc08-9025] [PMID: 18945920]
[58]
Sola D, Rossi L, Schianca GPC, et al. Sulfonylureas and their use in clinical practice. Arch Med Sci 2015; 11(4): 840-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2015.53304] [PMID: 26322096]
[59]
Consoli A, Formoso G. Do thiazolidinediones still have a role in treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus? Diabetes Obes Metab 2013; 15(11): 967-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dom.12101] [PMID: 23522285]
[60]
Ahrén B. Use of DPP-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes: focus on sitagliptin. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2010; 3: 31-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/DMSO.S7327] [PMID: 21437074]
[61]
Vasilakou D, Karagiannis T, Athanasiadou E, et al. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors for type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2013; 159(4): 262-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-159-4-201308200-00007] [PMID: 24026259]
[62]
Neal B, Perkovic V, de Zeeuw D, et al. CANVAS Trial Collaborative Group. Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin, an inhibitor of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, when used in conjunction with insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015; 38(3): 403-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc14-1237] [PMID: 25468945]
[63]
Prasad-Reddy L, Isaacs D. A clinical review of GLP-1 receptor agonists: efficacy and safety in diabetes and beyond. Drugs Context 2015; 4: 212283.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7573/dic.212283] [PMID: 26213556]
[64]
Chamberlain JJ, Rhinehart AS, Shaefer CF Jr, Neuman A. Diagnosis and management of diabetes: Synopsis of the 2016 american diabetes association standards of medical care in diabetes. Ann Intern Med 2016; 164(8): 542-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M15-3016] [PMID: 26928912]
[65]
Huang D, Refaat M, Mohammedi K, Jayyousi A, Al Suwaidi J, Abi Khalil C. Macrovascular complications in patients with diabetes and prediabetes. BioMed Res Int 2017; 2017: 7839101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/7839101] [PMID: 29238721]
[66]
Hayward RA, Reaven PD, Wiitala WL, et al. VADT Investigators. Follow-up of glycemic control and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(23): 2197-206.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1414266] [PMID: 26039600]
[67]
Kramer CK, Ye C, Campbell S, Retnakaran R. Comparison of new glucose-lowering drugs on risk of heart failure in type 2 diabetes: a network meta-analysis. JACC Heart Fail 2018; 6(10): 823-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2018.05.021] [PMID: 30196071]
[68]
Chawla A, Chawla R, Jaggi S. Microvasular and macrovascular complications in diabetes mellitus: Distinct or continuum? Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2016; 20(4): 546-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.183480] [PMID: 27366724]
[69]
Takhelmayun R, Thanpari C, Singh TP. Liver dy9sfunction in diabetic patients admitted in referral hospital. Bali Med J 2014; 3(3): 122-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15562/bmj.v3i3.87]
[70]
Yeung MW, Wong GLH, Choi KC, et al. Advanced liver fibrosis but not steatosis is independently associated with albuminuria in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes. J Hepatol 2017; 68(1): 147-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2017.09.020] [PMID: 28989092]
[71]
Kwok R, Choi KC, Wong GLH, et al. Screening diabetic patients for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with controlled attenuation parameter and liver stiffness measurements: a prospective cohort study. Gut 2016; 65(8): 1359-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309265] [PMID: 25873639]
[72]
Mora-Fernández C, Domínguez-Pimentel V, de Fuentes MM, Górriz JL, Martínez-Castelao A, Navarro-González JF. Diabetic kidney disease: from physiology to therapeutics. J Physiol 2014; 592(18): 3997-4012.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2014.272328] [PMID: 24907306]
[73]
Reidy K, Kang HM, Hostetter T, Susztak K. Molecular mechanisms of diabetic kidney disease. J Clin Invest 2014; 124(6): 2333-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI72271] [PMID: 24892707]
[74]
Afkarian M, Sachs MC, Kestenbaum B, et al. Kidney disease and increased mortality risk in type 2 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2013; 24(2): 302-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2012070718] [PMID: 23362314]
[75]
Inker LA, Schmid CH, Tighiouart H, et al. CKD-EPI Investigators. Estimating glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine and cystatin C. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(1): 20-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1114248] [PMID: 22762315]
[76]
Delanaye P, Schaeffner E, Ebert N, et al. Normal reference values for glomerular filtration rate: what do we really know? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012; 27(7): 2664-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfs265] [PMID: 22802582]
[77]
Finney H, Newman DJ, Price CP. Adult reference ranges for serum cystatin C, creatinine and predicted creatinine clearance. Ann Clin Biochem 2000; 37(Pt 1): 49-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/0004563001901524] [PMID: 10672373]
[78]
Naresh CN, Hayen A, Weening A, Craig JC, Chadban SJ. Day-to-day variability in spot urine albumin-creatinine ratio. Am J Kidney Dis 2013; 62(6): 1095-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.06.016] [PMID: 23958401]
[79]
Afkarian M, Zelnick LR, Hall YN, et al. Clinical manifestations of kidney disease among US adults with diabetes, 1988-2014. JAMA 2016; 316(6): 602-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.10924] [PMID: 27532915]
[80]
Atkins RC, Zimmet P. Diabetic kidney disease: act now or pay later. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010; 25(2): 331-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfp757] [PMID: 20093271]
[81]
Zanchi A, Lehmann R, Philippe J. Antidiabetic drugs and kidney disease--recommendations of the Swiss Society for Endocrinology and Diabetology. Swiss Med Wkly 2012; 142: w13629.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4414/smw.2012.13629] [PMID: 22987488]
[82]
Tuttle KR, Bakris GL, Bilous RW, et al. Diabetic kidney disease: a report from an ADA Consensus Conference. Am J Kidney Dis 2014; 64(4): 510-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2014.08.001] [PMID: 25257325]
[83]
Bouhairie VE, McGill JB. Diabetic Kidney Disease. Mo Med 2016; 113(5): 390-4.
[PMID: 30228506]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
23
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy