Nanoelectronics Devices: Design, Materials, and Applications Part II

Photonic crystal (PhC) has witnessed an unprecedented research interest since its discovery by Yablonovitch and John in 1987. PhC has undergone substantial theoretical and experimental study because of its periodic dielectric structure and ability to guide and manipulate light at the optical wavelength scale. The photonic band gap (PBG), one of the fundamental characteristics of PhC, prohibits the transmission of light inside a definite wavelength range. The PBG property of PhC opens up enormous opportunities for envisioning a wide range of applications like communication, filtering, bio-sensing, interconnector, modulator, polarizer, environmental safety, food processing etc. However, a peculiar property can be observed when defects are added to PhC, the periodicity of this dielectric structure is disrupted, allowing PC to exhibit high electromagnetic field confinement, a little more volume, and feeble confinement loss. The propagation of light can be altered and engineered by altering the structural characteristics of PhC or introducing appropriate materials into the rods of PC. Among the different applications, optical interconnect is the most escalating application in a photonic integrated circuit. This chapter addresses a novel 2D photonic crystal waveguide for optical amplifier application. The proposed structure comprises 9×9 circular rods of Si with air in the background. A sequence of Si rods is removed to create a defect in the 90o shape. The finite difference time domain method (FDTD) can be adjusted to envisage the electric field allocation along the 90o bend defective region. Several geometrical factors, such as the radius of the Si rods and the gap between lattices, are judiciously optimized in order to realize strong light confinement inside the defect region. The intensity of incident light and the transmitted light is evaluated through numerical analysis, where it is found that the transmitted intensity from the waveguide is much higher than the intensity of incident light, which ensures that the projected construction can act as an optical amplifier. Apart from this, the bending loss close to the bending area of the photonic waveguide is investigated. A small bending loss of the order of 10-5 exists, which indicates efficient guidance of light along the 90o bend path. Lastly, the confinement loss along the defect region is studied, which is found to be in the order of 10-11. So, the light propagation with negligible loss indicates that the future PCW could be an appropriate applicant for optical interconnect applications.

 Smart small-scale power system accommodates Microgrid (MG) and Nanogrid (NG) with a cluster of multiple Distributed Energy Resources (DER), energy storage facilities, adjustable smart demand capabilities, and protecting and monitoring devices. The advancements in nanotechnology attracted the inculcation of nanomaterial science to resolve equipment-related issues in electrical power systems. The realization of nanotechnology to mitigate the variety of issues in the major entities of small-scale distribution systems leads to the evolution of the smart grid. From the smart grid perspective, the nanotechnology application acts as a disruptive technology in the improvement of renewable energy harvesting, storage devices, transformers, meters, insulators, capacitors, sensors, automation and communication. It provides an appropriate innovative solution for adequate and reliable electrification in MG and NG topology. In this article, the applications of nanotechnology in major equipment of small-scale distribution power systems and the possible innovation of MG and NG are discussed to inculcate a smarter electrical power system. The impact of nanotechnology applications has revitalized the Smart Power Grid in a modest way to provide an excellent opportunity for power autonomy.

As a typical member of two-dimensional TMDs, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2 ) has excellent carrier mobility, a sizable surface area, thermal stability, and optoelectronic features. Due to its tunable bandgap, strong valence–conduction band bonding, and use in optoelectronic sensors, photodiodes, and phototransistors, MoS2 has emerged as a possible substitute for graphene. For better optoelectronic properties, MoS2 -based monolayers and crystals have recently been investigated using a variety of heterostructures, including MoS2 /graphene, MoS2 /CNT and MoS2 /WS2 . It was also mentioned that MoS2 phototransistors and sensors had poor light sensitivity because of their insufficient ability to absorb light. The right choice of material is essential for biomedical implants, including retinal implants, neuroprosthetic implants, and others where photodiodes are used to generate electrical currents in reaction to incident light Au-based nanoparticles and nanoarrays have been added to the MoS2 monolayer to address the low absorption problem. For increased quantum efficiency, MoS2 monolayers based on solar cells and light-emitting diodes have also recently been created. In some of the other research, other transition metal (TM) atoms, such as Au, Ag, Cu, Nb, Tc, Ta, Re, Co, Ni, Fe, and Mn, were substituted into the monolayer of MoS2 , enhancing the material's electrical, magnetic, electrocatalytic, and gas adsorption capabilities. The combined electrical and optical properties of TM-doped and alkaline metal (AM) doped MoS2 bulk layers haven't received much attention, though. In this study, the effects of doping MoS2 bulk layers with TM atoms (Au, Ag, and Cu) and AM atoms (Na, Li) were investigated using first-principles DFT calculations. We investigated the density of states (DOS), band structures, structural features, optical conductivity, absorption, and reflectivity of five different doped MoS2 bulk layers. The results show that AM atom doping narrows the MoS2 bulk layer's bandgap more than TM doping. Bandgap values ranged from 1.42 eV for the undoped MoS2 layer to 0.609 eV for the Li-MoS2 layer. Additionally, it was discovered that bulk layers of MoS2 doped with AM had higher optical conductivity and absorption qualities and lower reflectivity. In applications of MoS2 - based photodiode/phototransistor sensors, doping of AM atoms may show to be a successful substitute for conventionally used TM (Au) doped arrays.

With the tremendous expansion in communication in recent years, contemporary communication techniques must improve quickly. The requirement is data-driven, driven mainly through users for content consumption and the expanding number of other mobile users who require quick access to the network for personal and professional needs, resulting in a massive growth in data traffic. However, because services and daily requirements are conducted over the internet, 5G demands pose new obstacles. As a result, device count and connections in wireless networks will grow, resulting in increasing demand for total data and the requirement to manage a large number of physical connections. In any modern wireless communication system, power amplifiers are essential components. For many years, the general problem has been to reduce the amount of energy consumed, which is DC in nature concerning the amount of radio frequency delivered. The fifth generation (5G) wireless communication system is intended to connect billions of devices at a very high data transfer rate. However, it has prompted worries about the fast-rising global energy consumption, necessitating urgent innovation in the creation of energy-efficient wireless transmitter systems. Efficiency, as well as linearity, are two important parameters of power amplifiers. It is unavoidable to make trade-offs among parameters like efficiency and linearity, and attaining both is incredibly challenging. In most cases, lowering the requirements of nonlinearity, which are linked to power efficiency, results in transmitting the signals with the highest amplitudes below the amplifier's compression level. The linearity of PAs, in addition to their efficiency, can be quite substantial. Some strategies include as Doherty power amplifier, Outphasing technique Envelope Tracking (ET), Kahn Envelope Elimination and Restoration (EER), and Linear Amplification with Nonlinear Components (LINC).

The significance and benefits of using solar energy for making use of power are notable. Still, the pace of introducing photovoltaic panels for creating power in domestic and private enterprises is still low. The explanation is the high establishment cost of the Photovoltaic arrangement, decreased productivity of the as-of-now involved solar panels and the huge space required for introducing solar panels. In this chapter, the authors have proposed an innovative Photovoltaic arrangement that resolves the previously mentioned issues. The proposed innovative multi-layered Photovoltaic model integrates nanotechnology with the present model of the panel. Various nanocomposites and nano polymers are compared, and the best-suited one is used to propose a novel solar panel with the help of nanotechnology. It was found that the integration of nano-technology improved the transmission rate of sun rays in the proposed panel. Lastly, a detailed comparative analysis between the existing Monocrystalline panel and the proposed set-up is done. It is found that the technical, economic and environmental performance of the proposed Photovoltaic Set-up exceeded that of the existing technology

The interface between nanotechnology and biotechnology is emerging as one of the latest technology with the utmost comprehensive and active areas of research, bringing together the medical science and engineering field. Scientifically a disease or an illness is mostly caused by molecular or cellular damage, and sensing these changes through nanoelectronics can play an important function in assisting medical demands for early detection and diagnosis. Implantable nanoelectronics devices create numerous applications in medical observation of specific signs, bio-physical investigations of impulsive tissues, implantable devices for different body organs, solving the previous shortcomings of conventional bioanalytical techniques in terms of sensitivity, throughput, ease-of-use, and downsizing. The advancement of nanobioelectronic systems that can activate enzyme activity, the electrically triggered medicine release, an electronic circuit-based retina for colour vision, nanotech-founded breathalyzers as an assessment tool, nanogenerators to control self-sustaining biological systems and implantation arrangement are some of the applications of nanoelectronics, and in future, we may even use nanoelectronics circuit within the body tissues to regulate its functioning. In this chapter, we give a summary of the latest advances in nanoelectronics based on nanostructures, on-chip and electronic integration, microfluidics, biochemistry, and data science toolkits, we highlight the possibility for improved performance and additional functionality.

The application of nanoparticles and nanoelectronic devices is a vast area of research in the medical field. This is with respect to the efficiency of nanoparticles to competently aim and pervade specific tissues within the body. Whereas nano electronic devices can perform real-time analysis of several parameters related to the disease condition. Medical devices and drug therapies at the nano level, eventually ensure a much higher level of precision in medicine. Therefore, the healthcare industry is leveraging this technology for diagnostics and nanomedicine. Various nanoscale devices are available that can monitor the disease condition of the body either in vivo or in vitro. Nanotechnology in dentistry has revolutionized the advancement of restorative materials. This chapter deliberates nanointerfaces that compromise the durability of dental restorations, and how nanotechnology has been utilized to adapt them for delivering long-term effective restorations. Recently, cosmetics have been immensely used with the development of innovative cosmetic formulations through the incorporation of the latest technologies. Nano cosmeceuticals is the name given to these products, which incorporate biologically active ingredients having therapeutic benefits on the surface applied. Using nanomaterials in devices makes it possible to enhance the mechanical strength and efficiency of the systems. They have high entrapment efficiency and good sensorial properties and are more stable than conventional cosmetics. Most of the nanoparticles are suitable for both lipophilic and hydrophilic drug delivery. Nanomaterials are widely used in the preparation of anti-wrinkle creams, moisturizing creams, skin-whitening creams, hair-repairing shampoos, conditioners, and hair serums. Promising results have been achieved with nanotechnology cancer theranostics and targeted drug delivery. Apart from high sensitivity, specificity, and multiplexed measurement capacity, nanodevices have been effective in the detection of extracellular cancer biomarkers and cancer cells, as well as in in vivo imaging. The chapter highlights the applications, and research status of nanodentistry and provides an intuition about future, ethical and safety concerns of nanotechnology. Nanodentistry is an offshoot of nanomedicine. Its emergence will aid in the maintenance of perfect oral health care using nanomaterials, biotechnology, and nanorobotics. This review abridges the latest developments in nanoelectronic devices for dentistry & cosmetics. In addition, the challenges in the translation of nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods into clinical applications have also been discussed. 

Nanotechnology is a new technology that has attracted more and more attention in biomedicine, electronics, industry, and environmental applications. Nanoparticles (NPs) have several applications in a number of social fields because of their exceptional optical, catalytic, thermal, and electrical capabilities. Magnetic NPs (MNPs), which feature exceptional superparamagnetism, a sizable specific surface area, simplicity of surface modification, chemical stability, biocompatibility, and high mass transfer, are one of the most crucial key types. Owing to these features, ferro-MNPs (FMNPs) have received large consideration because of their applications in medicine, biosensing, catalysis, agriculture, and the environment. This chapter briefly introduces the main synthesis methods of FMNPs and describes the characterization and composition of nano-biosensors. Then, the potential applications of FMNP-based nano-biosensors in diverse fields are discussed through typical examples. Finally, the research status, challenges, and development prospects of FMNP-based nano-biosensors are summarized.

Nanobiosensor technology is a powerful technology that fulfills the requirement of specificity and sensitivity. It is an important prerequisite for agriculture, health care, food processing, and packaging. Highly miniature sensors have been designed and achieved based on nanotechnology. Nanobiotechnology is an interdisciplinary invention of nanosciences (Materials, Electronics, Mechanics, Computers, and Biology) to create biosensors with highly reliable detecting competence. Nanobiosensors are nanosensors with immobilized bio-receptor analyses that are selective for target analyte particles. Being in the nanoscale, the data are sensed, processed, and analyzed at an atomic scale. Their applications consist of the recognition of organic analytes like microorganisms/ pathogens and pesticides and observing metabolites. They can also be used to facilitate molecular analysis by integrating with other technologies, such as lab-on-a-chip. Nanobiotechnology is a newly explored research area that gears up real bioanalytical applications. This chapter is a journey of philosophy, understanding and setting a pattern for using nanotechnology in agriculture. This episode is a presentation of the essence of nanomaterials and their applications of nanomaterials for agriculture. The significance and importance of nanomaterials in the food industry are added.

Gallium nitride semiconductors are considered as optimal candidate materials for terahertz quantum cascade lasers to achieve room-temperature operation and to fill the terahertz frequency gap of 6-12 THz, owing to the large longitudinal optical phonon energy (90meV, >21THz) which is 3 times that of gallium arsenide. However, the inter-subband lasing signal from gallium nitride cannot be easily obtained, with limitations such as the lack of a reliable design prediction model and the consistent epitaxy of a thick superlattice. In this chapter, the non-equilibrium Green’s function model is introduced to study the various scatterings in gallium nitride-based quantum cascade lasers and subsequently to predict the optical gain at different terahertz frequencies. In addition, thick GaN/AlGaN superlattice structures were grown using both techniques of in-house low-pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition and radio-frequency plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. 

The field of electronic devices has become more significant during the past 40 years. However, the laws of quantum mechanics and the limitations of fabrication techniques have revolutionized modern technology. Many investigators in the field of electronic devices have found that nanotechnology has been used to improve electronic components and electronic research. Moreover, the devices with at least one overall dimension in the nanoscale are characterized in the category of nanodevices. These devices will impact modern society concerning computers, networking, medical services, defence, and surveillance systems. These devices will impact modern society in various applications such as computing, communications, health care, security, and environmental monitoring. Nanoelectronics aims to reduce the size, weight, and power consumption of electronic devices and displays while increasing their functionality. Device weight and power consumption are reduced as a result. To synthesize these devices, a suitable material is always needed. The nanotechnology industry is advancing steadily, and robust characterization and synthesis methods are available to manufacture nanomaterials with precise dimensions. Nanotechnology's influence on the development of nanoscale systems is sustainable and has begun to have a substantial positive impact. The rise of the nanodevice sector has been sparked by developments in nanomaterials, which are briefly covered in this chapter. We specifically outline and define several terms associated with nanomaterials. The top-down and bottom-up approaches to nanomaterial production, as well as other techniques, are reviewed. The chapter also highlights the distinctive properties of nanomaterials. Finally, we conclude by discussing the difficulties and prospects of using nanomaterials in the nanodevice sector.

Nanomaterials are particles in sizes from 1-100 nm. Nanomaterials have a wide field of applications in aviation and aerospace, chemical industries, optics, solar hydrogen, fuel cell, batteries, sensors, power generation, aeronautic industry, buildingconstruction industry, automotive engineering, consumer electronics, thermoelectric devices, pharmaceuticals, paints, and cosmetics. Also, efforts are being made to develop friendly alternate energy sources using nanomaterials. In this chapter, the main focus will be on the application of nanomaterials in various aspects of the medical field. Nanomaterials are used in various medical devices. Some of the nanomaterials used in the area of optical imaging are quantum dots, and in MRI are superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Also, nanomaterials are applied in ultrasound imaging and radionuclide imaging. Due to the small size of batteries (e.g., for pacemakers) or electronic circuits and sensors utilized in medical devices presently made using nanomaterials. New ceramics consisting of materials derived from sintered nanopowders (comparable to 3D-printing) or having a specially designed surface are made from so-called nanostructures for teeth filling or screws for dental implants. For bio-detection of pathogens, detection of proteins, and phagokinetic studies, nanomaterials are also used. For fluorescent biological labels, drug and gene delivery, probing of DNA structure, tissue engineering, tumour destruction via heating (hyperthermia), separation and purification of biological molecules and cells, MRI contrast enhancement, osteoporosis treatment, infection prevention, bone regeneration are some of the applications of nanomaterials used in medicines. Cancer therapy, neurodegenerative disease therapy, HIV/AIDS therapy, ocular disease therapy, respiratory disease therapy, sight-restoring therapy, and gene therapy are various therapies nanomaterials are used Nanomaterials used in various surgeries are surgical oncology, thoracic surgery, replacement of heart with an artificial heart, vascular surgery, neurosurgery, radiosurgery, ophthalmic surgery, plastic and reconstructive surgery, maxillofacial surgery, orthopedic surgery, intracellular surgery by nanorobots. Although all applications of nanomaterials have pros and cons, care should be taken so that the cons can be minimized.

This chapter summarizes the progress of InAs submonolayer (SML) quantum dot (QD) based intermediate band solar cell (IBSC). A brief background of intermediate band solar cells (IBSC) will be presented. Different IBSC prototypes will be discussed. The importance of quantum dots (QDs) for IBSC prototyping will be illustrated. An alternative of the most extensively used Stranski-Krastanow (SK)-QDs named SML QDs will be introduced. The fabrication of SML-QD-based IBSC will be discussed from the material point of view. We will also discuss the physics behind the improved performance of these SCs. Important research in this field will be reviewed. Finally, the future direction will be suggested to further improve the performance.

This chapter reviews different technologies for tailoring Electromagnetic BandGap (EBG) of some materials and their primary applications. Recently, nitride-based materials have been widely used because of their high emission efficiency. InxGa1-xN/GaN heterostructures (Gallium nitride) play a significant attraction due to the terahertz (THz) emission. InxGa1-xN/GaN heterostructures can be tailored in a wide emission range by the variation of structure, size, and composition, resulting in excellent laser and light-emitting devices. Ultrafast optical excitation of such types of structures leads to large THz electromagnetic emissions. In some cases, the EBG of graphene has adopted a square open-loop shape with a ground plane, which displays good characteristics in dynamically adjusting the electromagnetic wave propagation in the THz range. The EBG structure is being progressively used because of its unique electromagnetic features. Due to the distinguished features of the bandgap for the emission of electromagnetic waves, it is used in various applications, such as high-performance microstrip antennas and low-profile antennas.