Frontiers in Clinical Drug Research-Anti Infectives

Volume: 1

Current Status of Antimicrobial Resistance in Enteric Bacterial Pathogens

Author(s): Yasra Sarwar, Aamir Ali, Asma Haque and Abdul Haque

Pp: 263-307 (45)

DOI: 10.2174/9781608058549114010009

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Bacterial enteric pathogens are by far the most dominant scourge of mankind. There are more than 200 million cases and 3 million deaths caused by these bacteria every year. Before the antimicrobial era, there were pandemics of enteric diseases which sometimes swept away whole populations. Advent of antimicrobial era provided a tool in the hand of mankind to fight this menace. In the beginning the results were promising and there was optimism of a decisive victory against disease causing bacteria. But the reality dawned within a couple of decades when antimicrobial resistance started to emerge and every new antimicrobial was generally knocked out in a couple of years. It became apparent that these bacteria held a distinct advantage because of very fast evolution rate due to relatively simple and small genome and short generation time. Currently, we are always playing a catch up game because the enemy is always ahead. The emergence of multiple drug resistance (MDR) has aggravated the situation and there is a distinct possibility that some of these menacing bugs may get out of control and situation of pre-antimicrobial era may return. Recently, a new term extreme-drug resistance (XDR) has been coined. This refers to bacteria resistant to all available drugs. This aptly summarizes the situation we are facing today. This catastrophe can only be avoided by putting more efforts in developing new concepts and products. This chapter is an effort to encompass the properties of these pathogens, the antimicrobials currently in use and the mechanisms of drug resistance evolved by these formidable bacteria.


Keywords: Antimicrobial drug resistance, human enteric pathogens, molecular mechanisms.

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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
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      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1518
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 316316526 and j.to_ip >=316316526 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739848502 and j.to_date >= 1739848502 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 6438) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 316316526 and j.to_ip >=316316526 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739848502 and j.to_date >= 1739848502 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 6438) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 316316526 and j.to_ip >=316316526 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739848502 and j.to_date >= 1739848502 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 6438)
      900μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 1507 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1739848502 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1739848502 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.12msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 1507
      • 3: 1739848502
      • 4: 1739848502
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='8ffe4428d801f7aaeccb23a962e0fbd7'
      270μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:260
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Keywords
    3Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        1XRnYCXJPfHxW9BtDVExgvm578u1129zFZqdDtCN
        uc_cart_id
        8ffe4428d801f7aaeccb23a962e0fbd7
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/6438" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/6438
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
        array:17 [ "x-https" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => "alpha.eurekaselect.com" ] "priority" => array:1 [ 0 => "u=0, i" ] "cookie" => array:1 [ 0 => "wayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IjFWZSs3eGEvNm1WWkpIU0JMYzExSnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiK0E1YXFYTDBRUHdMZThHcnQzVmFIaEN2MWh2cHo1RFFlZkMyTGZlcUVJND0iLCJtYWMiOiIyNWJlNjZhMGM3ZjNmNzcwZmE2MzhiZDI2Njc3N2VkM2I2YjQyMTg0Y2U0ZTg1ZjAyYzk4ZmQyNGRlNmIxZjdmIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3Dwayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IjFWZSs3eGEvNm1WWkpIU0JMYzExSnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiK0E1YXFYTDBRUHdMZThHcnQzVmFIaEN2MWh2cHo1RFFlZkMyTGZlcUVJND0iLCJtYWMiOiIyNWJlNjZhMGM3ZjNm" ] "accept-encoding" => array:1 [ 0 => "gzip, deflate, br, zstd" ] "sec-fetch-dest" => array:1 [ 0 => "document" ] "sec-fetch-user" => array:1 [ 0 => "?1" ] "sec-fetch-mode" => array:1 [ 0 => "navigate" ] "sec-fetch-site" => array:1 [ 0 => "none" ] "accept" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,*/*;q=0.8,application/signed-exchange;v=b3;q=0.7" ] "user-agent" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mozilla/5.0 AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko; compatible; ClaudeBot/1.0; +claudebot@anthropic.com)" ] "upgrade-insecure-requests" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "sec-ch-ua-platform" => array:1 [ 0 => ""Windows"" ] "sec-ch-ua-mobile" => array:1 [ 0 => "?0" ] "sec-ch-ua" => array:1 [ 0 => ""HeadlessChrome";v="129", "Not=A?Brand";v="8", "Chromium";v="129"" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] "pragma" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] ]
        request_cookies
        0 of 0
        array:1 [ "wayfindertarget" => null ]
        response_headers
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "content-type" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html; charset=UTF-8" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache, private" ] "date" => array:1 [ 0 => "Tue, 18 Feb 2025 03:15:02 GMT" ] "set-cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkRFMEdRR01kekpqYzRaSDF2OWpXV1E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiNHl1YkVRdUlJWE1iK3dlbUNRWm02VG9HTCtyZjhqMTg3ZFQvbW80dDNJb3B4dDNJVHEzMDVRWTJUWWN6c2RBUmRPaExScmVpR05UN1VZYTI0QnA1cnZFMDhRQXl3bFp4SGtmc3ZRVWw5eFFkUTFQeTQ0N25HZXY4dUhzREhmcTAiLCJtYWMiOiI1Nzc4MmJmOGMzM2M3MjU3YWRiOWYxZGZlZDYyMTRkMWZjZWY1YzhlNDFkMjgxNmQ0YjFmYTM2YzQ5ODg4ZjM2IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20 Feb 2025 15:15:02 GMT; Max-Age=216000; path=/; secure; samesite=laxXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkRFMEdRR01kekpqYzRaSDF2OWpXV1E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiNHl1YkVRdUlJWE1iK3dlbUNRWm02VG9HTCtyZjhqMTg3ZFQvbW80dDNJb3B4dDNJVHEzMDVRWTJUWWN6c2RBUmRPaExSc" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IkVJOVJ1ejEvZ1lIdDBua0xZdTR1Y0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiaUNqYVJ6YmNvd3VMUS9WZEUrVHBkYVNmaE9sUXpnWEUzT0tmOVg3V3FYcFJENXlRS3ZKVGxZVVlCZFpZbzh5dHYyNkFSSDhFVFhldmJTVXRqUStwZStHRDVyWEowVk5sbGMxNmEvVXFIMHpsSzNKVy94QmhNMTEzY2E3Y01MV00iLCJtYWMiOiJlNzA2Njc1YTU1ZDNiMjk5MjZlYWU1ODkwNjA5Nzk4YzM4OGNkYzZlOTBjZDMwY2M5ODMyNzdhZDkyYWZhMjdlIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponly; samesite=laxalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IkVJOVJ1ejEvZ1lIdDBua0xZdTR1Y0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiaUNqYVJ6YmNvd3VMUS9WZEUrVHBkYVNmaE9sUXpnWEUzT0tmOVg3V3FYcFJENXlRS3ZKVGxZVVl" ] "Set-Cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkRFMEdRR01kekpqYzRaSDF2OWpXV1E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiNHl1YkVRdUlJWE1iK3dlbUNRWm02VG9HTCtyZjhqMTg3ZFQvbW80dDNJb3B4dDNJVHEzMDVRWTJUWWN6c2RBUmRPaExScmVpR05UN1VZYTI0QnA1cnZFMDhRQXl3bFp4SGtmc3ZRVWw5eFFkUTFQeTQ0N25HZXY4dUhzREhmcTAiLCJtYWMiOiI1Nzc4MmJmOGMzM2M3MjU3YWRiOWYxZGZlZDYyMTRkMWZjZWY1YzhlNDFkMjgxNmQ0YjFmYTM2YzQ5ODg4ZjM2IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20-Feb-2025 15:15:02 GMT; path=/; secureXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkRFMEdRR01kekpqYzRaSDF2OWpXV1E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiNHl1YkVRdUlJWE1iK3dlbUNRWm02VG9HTCtyZjhqMTg3ZFQvbW80dDNJb3B4dDNJVHEzMDVRWTJUWWN6c2RBUmRPaExSc" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IkVJOVJ1ejEvZ1lIdDBua0xZdTR1Y0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiaUNqYVJ6YmNvd3VMUS9WZEUrVHBkYVNmaE9sUXpnWEUzT0tmOVg3V3FYcFJENXlRS3ZKVGxZVVlCZFpZbzh5dHYyNkFSSDhFVFhldmJTVXRqUStwZStHRDVyWEowVk5sbGMxNmEvVXFIMHpsSzNKVy94QmhNMTEzY2E3Y01MV00iLCJtYWMiOiJlNzA2Njc1YTU1ZDNiMjk5MjZlYWU1ODkwNjA5Nzk4YzM4OGNkYzZlOTBjZDMwY2M5ODMyNzdhZDkyYWZhMjdlIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponlyalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IkVJOVJ1ejEvZ1lIdDBua0xZdTR1Y0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiaUNqYVJ6YmNvd3VMUS9WZEUrVHBkYVNmaE9sUXpnWEUzT0tmOVg3V3FYcFJENXlRS3ZKVGxZVVl" ] ]
        session_attributes
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "_token" => "1XRnYCXJPfHxW9BtDVExgvm578u1129zFZqdDtCN" "uc_cart_id" => "8ffe4428d801f7aaeccb23a962e0fbd7" "_previous" => array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/6438" ] "_flash" => array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ] "PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA" => [] ]
        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-18 03:15:02GET/chapter/6438112195