Origin of Elements

Author(s): Arnold Hanslmeier

Pp: 168-178 (11)

DOI: 10.2174/9781608054732113010011

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

In this chapter we discuss how, when, and during which processes the chemical elements have been formed in the universe. A short review about the origin of the universe is given The most abundant chemical element in the universe is hydrogen. This was formed during the first phases of the Big Bang and all other elements such as He, Carbon, Oxygen were formed by thermonuclear reactions (expect elements heavier than Fe). These processes are discussed in the chapter on stellar evolution where a distinction has to be done between low mass and massive stars. Therefore, it took several generations of stars before the universe contained a certain amount of these elements so that solid planets and complex molecules could originate.

The main message of this chapter is that the chemical elements necessary for life are the products of thermonuclear reaction that took place in the center of stars (with few exceptions), so that we consist of stellar dust.


Keywords: Universe: Origin; Primordial composition; stellar evolution; white dwarfs; red giants; neutron stars; black holes; supernovae; origin of elements; nucleosyntheis

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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
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      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 51271683 and j.to_ip >=51271683 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740774520 and j.to_date >= 1740774520 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 4829) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 51271683 and j.to_ip >=51271683 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740774520 and j.to_date >= 1740774520 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 4829) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 51271683 and j.to_ip >=51271683 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740774520 and j.to_date >= 1740774520 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 4829)
      760μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 1190 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1740774520 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1740774520 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.14msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 1190
      • 3: 1740774520
      • 4: 1740774520
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='0b87fd270d95b05c6a4c2477e7926773'
      310μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:291
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Keywords
    1Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        4JgRh6pOlRBNG5SHFaKDZMa3rmT64OrifxeHzzCX
        uc_cart_id
        0b87fd270d95b05c6a4c2477e7926773
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/4829" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/4829
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
        array:17 [ "x-https" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => "alpha.eurekaselect.com" ] "priority" => array:1 [ 0 => "u=0, i" ] "cookie" => array:1 [ 0 => "wayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6InFNS3BmTmNXbm0vNUc4SG5VbndMSXc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiR2Fmam54QUZKZ0N0cGxpS1pMYjhnMmRVYzJwUzVHZXBYM2l1Ti9GVnBlND0iLCJtYWMiOiJlM2ExZDQxNjIwZGY4NzJhYjRmNmNiODIwZjgzYWZmODdhNmU1N2MzNWNkNDQ5ZWM3ZjQ4NjRhN2Q1NjJlZGE0IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IklEU0tNV0M1M2JGVHZMT3VJNmY2eGc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoib2tRSVFGSmdTMUZUV1J4WTZoR283UUdoRFVnSEt3ZGt1clZTN0NEWTM1akZDaEpadVRyRmhnT1BGUnR0NlJIcHdqb2tSVW00VXdQaEZwUms0ckkzbWs0VUQ5SnNrWTNjQWlEUmI3b2RJWHNudy9LbWJnUFJ6RHV1K21rb3VUL1kiLCJtYWMiOiI5OTg2OTgwOTk4MTU5MDk5NTlhZmFkNmFiZmJmOWY0YzQzMjA2YzM1NGM0OTUzZGY1NDg2ZjExYzA5NmFkMGYwIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IlBkUzlTS0plMVBITFJNV1o2d3hqNFE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiWlRNaUFITWplN0tDK3pta1R3OUo0czRvSkxldUlvaW1YSzVYRURndEszOEZzQVR3dmZaYkQyZEtIcEQvSENEZ3piS3VzS3RDVFZKTVR6aHBuSGdRd3N5MW41bUd0ZkFSUGdYVnltRVhKeTF4cmVmNDJmWmI0Zm1jMHlicW0ralEiLCJtYWMiOiI3NmM5Y2FmYzNhMmUwZTNhMjEwNTc4MDBiYzQyMjFiZjBmZWMwNDQ5OTZiOTg5NDZlNTNlMzRmODFjM2JmOWUyIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3Dwayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6InFNS3BmTmNXbm0vNUc4SG5VbndMSXc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiR2Fmam54QUZKZ0N0cGxpS1pMYjhnMmRVYzJwUzVHZXBYM2l1Ti9GVnBlND0iLCJtYWMiOiJlM2ExZDQxNjIwZGY4" ] "accept-encoding" => array:1 [ 0 => "gzip, deflate, br, zstd" ] "sec-fetch-dest" => array:1 [ 0 => "document" ] "sec-fetch-user" => array:1 [ 0 => "?1" ] "sec-fetch-mode" => array:1 [ 0 => "navigate" ] "sec-fetch-site" => array:1 [ 0 => "none" ] "accept" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,*/*;q=0.8,application/signed-exchange;v=b3;q=0.7" ] "user-agent" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mozilla/5.0 AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko; compatible; ClaudeBot/1.0; +claudebot@anthropic.com)" ] "upgrade-insecure-requests" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "sec-ch-ua-platform" => array:1 [ 0 => ""Windows"" ] "sec-ch-ua-mobile" => array:1 [ 0 => "?0" ] "sec-ch-ua" => array:1 [ 0 => ""HeadlessChrome";v="129", "Not=A?Brand";v="8", "Chromium";v="129"" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] "pragma" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] ]
        request_cookies
        0 of 0
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        response_headers
        0 of 0
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        session_attributes
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        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-28 20:28:40GET/chapter/4829112193