What is life?

Author(s): Arnold Hanslmeier

Pp: 3-20 (18)

DOI: 10.2174/9781608054732113010003

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

This chapter opens with the very difficult assessment of life. A careful definition is necessary to know how to search for the existence of life in the universe, especially on other planets. Until the end of the twentieth century it was hardly proven from observations that planets outside our Solar System exist. However, with the technological advancement we know more than 1000 extrasolar planets, with the number increasing steeply because of the new satellite missions (see chapter on extrasolar planets). The main problem however is, that till now we only know about the existence of life on Earth. Could life evolve elsewhere under completely different conditions than on Earth? Based on our knowledge on terrestrial life, we will also give some basic information on how living cells function. We give an overview on how life works on Earth by discussing photosynthesis, respiration, organic molecules, molecules that are essential for life. The complex organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids are discussed and how they work together in a cell. Cell division is also reviewed and it is demonstrated why this mechanism has evolved from a simple fusion process to such a complex process like meiosis. The main message of this chapter is that life is complex, based on complex molecules, reproduces itself and needs energy.


Keywords: Life; definition of life; prokaryotes; eukaryotes; cells; organic molecules; photosynthesis; respiration; cell division; mitosis; meiosis

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      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 309725698 and j.to_ip >=309725698 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740774953 and j.to_date >= 1740774953 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 4821) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 309725698 and j.to_ip >=309725698 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740774953 and j.to_date >= 1740774953 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 4821) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 309725698 and j.to_ip >=309725698 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740774953 and j.to_date >= 1740774953 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 4821)
      970μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 1190 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1740774953 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1740774953 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.65msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 1190
      • 3: 1740774953
      • 4: 1740774953
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='9ac1402e9778746251dfb49c9646a452'
      270μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:291
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Keywords
    1Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        tQTQMSCWic1GxravmeuJuUTWc5Y1w47Nvq3Zm7aA
        uc_cart_id
        9ac1402e9778746251dfb49c9646a452
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/4821" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/4821
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
        array:17 [ "x-https" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => "alpha.eurekaselect.com" ] "priority" => array:1 [ 0 => "u=0, i" ] "cookie" => array:1 [ 0 => "wayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6Imw4K1lSakNyZmVJNFVqQ01NbncxRXc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiRDRDNjZQODBSeW50b2ZWaStFU0xwalRGOWNlc1NOdVc5ZnBjTWlmUVA5bz0iLCJtYWMiOiI0MzI3NzRlMmFkZTM4NmM4OWE5YjVmOTIzZjZkZWQ5MDE3NDhhOGYwZjZlYTNmMzQxYmVlYWRlNDQwYmUwOTMzIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3Dwayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6Imw4K1lSakNyZmVJNFVqQ01NbncxRXc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiRDRDNjZQODBSeW50b2ZWaStFU0xwalRGOWNlc1NOdVc5ZnBjTWlmUVA5bz0iLCJtYWMiOiI0MzI3NzRlMmFkZTM4" ] "accept-encoding" => array:1 [ 0 => "gzip, deflate, br, zstd" ] "sec-fetch-dest" => array:1 [ 0 => "document" ] "sec-fetch-user" => array:1 [ 0 => "?1" ] "sec-fetch-mode" => array:1 [ 0 => "navigate" ] "sec-fetch-site" => array:1 [ 0 => "none" ] "accept" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,*/*;q=0.8,application/signed-exchange;v=b3;q=0.7" ] "user-agent" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mozilla/5.0 AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko; compatible; ClaudeBot/1.0; +claudebot@anthropic.com)" ] "upgrade-insecure-requests" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "sec-ch-ua-platform" => array:1 [ 0 => ""Windows"" ] "sec-ch-ua-mobile" => array:1 [ 0 => "?0" ] "sec-ch-ua" => array:1 [ 0 => ""HeadlessChrome";v="129", "Not=A?Brand";v="8", "Chromium";v="129"" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] "pragma" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] ]
        request_cookies
        0 of 0
        array:1 [ "wayfindertarget" => null ]
        response_headers
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "content-type" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html; charset=UTF-8" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache, private" ] "date" => array:1 [ 0 => "Fri, 28 Feb 2025 20:35:53 GMT" ] "set-cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkJveFh0NTc1c2NzOXROYWxmOXdlaUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiVk1JeThUTThKR0lkSGpDbEZMNktlbTVwQXZreUMrbXdyd1J5Z293K3c5cmFlSVRoZ3QzQ2h4RERlaU03d3h1Z2ZuZjMvU0JkeFJqNU1WZUJWdUZiMzZSMGlEVEdFNGlJU3VnblYvd2w5ZTlETmlmS0Y5Y1Arb0JCWkJQZ0lLMVgiLCJtYWMiOiJmODVkNmY2YjY1OWMyODVjNDJjMTA4OGZmNDM5N2ZjM2EwMzc3ZmVlMDI0MDNmOTVlYWVkZjY5NTBiODJjZTJmIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Mon, 03 Mar 2025 08:35:53 GMT; Max-Age=216000; path=/; secure; samesite=laxXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkJveFh0NTc1c2NzOXROYWxmOXdlaUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiVk1JeThUTThKR0lkSGpDbEZMNktlbTVwQXZreUMrbXdyd1J5Z293K3c5cmFlSVRoZ3QzQ2h4RERlaU03d3h1Z2ZuZjMvU" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IlQxRHI2OUJjdDBIL2FiTG5LUWlaTVE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQ0JoR2lId2NnRk81dThITEZuaFFxaDFhV1AwNWRVdG1nVmRGakx2Y2FhNmFsVGp5eGNlZFdCcjBQdDlLUmc2OWt5dTFDcE1rTWVqaGNoWFpNd2cvRjdCU2pCZ0ZzS2pyN2RiNWRZZjJTVGI5TS82aHh6VFk0L2xBNlZqaGZDN0kiLCJtYWMiOiIxZmFiYTFjNTE1MTQxNmY1ZDg0NzA3MGQ2OWYwM2FkZmE5MjJiYWM5ODRmN2VkMjk4ODQ0NWVmNGYxYTE0ZGFiIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponly; samesite=laxalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IlQxRHI2OUJjdDBIL2FiTG5LUWlaTVE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQ0JoR2lId2NnRk81dThITEZuaFFxaDFhV1AwNWRVdG1nVmRGakx2Y2FhNmFsVGp5eGNlZFdCcjB" ] "Set-Cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkJveFh0NTc1c2NzOXROYWxmOXdlaUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiVk1JeThUTThKR0lkSGpDbEZMNktlbTVwQXZreUMrbXdyd1J5Z293K3c5cmFlSVRoZ3QzQ2h4RERlaU03d3h1Z2ZuZjMvU0JkeFJqNU1WZUJWdUZiMzZSMGlEVEdFNGlJU3VnblYvd2w5ZTlETmlmS0Y5Y1Arb0JCWkJQZ0lLMVgiLCJtYWMiOiJmODVkNmY2YjY1OWMyODVjNDJjMTA4OGZmNDM5N2ZjM2EwMzc3ZmVlMDI0MDNmOTVlYWVkZjY5NTBiODJjZTJmIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Mon, 03-Mar-2025 08:35:53 GMT; path=/; secureXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkJveFh0NTc1c2NzOXROYWxmOXdlaUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiVk1JeThUTThKR0lkSGpDbEZMNktlbTVwQXZreUMrbXdyd1J5Z293K3c5cmFlSVRoZ3QzQ2h4RERlaU03d3h1Z2ZuZjMvU" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IlQxRHI2OUJjdDBIL2FiTG5LUWlaTVE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQ0JoR2lId2NnRk81dThITEZuaFFxaDFhV1AwNWRVdG1nVmRGakx2Y2FhNmFsVGp5eGNlZFdCcjBQdDlLUmc2OWt5dTFDcE1rTWVqaGNoWFpNd2cvRjdCU2pCZ0ZzS2pyN2RiNWRZZjJTVGI5TS82aHh6VFk0L2xBNlZqaGZDN0kiLCJtYWMiOiIxZmFiYTFjNTE1MTQxNmY1ZDg0NzA3MGQ2OWYwM2FkZmE5MjJiYWM5ODRmN2VkMjk4ODQ0NWVmNGYxYTE0ZGFiIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponlyalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IlQxRHI2OUJjdDBIL2FiTG5LUWlaTVE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQ0JoR2lId2NnRk81dThITEZuaFFxaDFhV1AwNWRVdG1nVmRGakx2Y2FhNmFsVGp5eGNlZFdCcjB" ] ]
        session_attributes
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "_token" => "tQTQMSCWic1GxravmeuJuUTWc5Y1w47Nvq3Zm7aA" "uc_cart_id" => "9ac1402e9778746251dfb49c9646a452" "_previous" => array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/4821" ] "_flash" => array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ] "PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA" => [] ]
        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-28 20:35:53GET/chapter/4821112193