Preventive Female Sex Factors Against The Development of Chronic Liver Disease

Innate Immune Response and Sex Hormones

Author(s): Yoshiki Katakura, Tsutoshi Asaki, Yosho Fukita, Ichiro Shimizu

Pp: 51-60 (10)

DOI: 10.2174/978160805293611201010051

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Females are more resistant to certain infections, and suffer a higher incidence of autoimmune diseases. Immune disease expression is also affected by the reproductive status of the female. Indeed, the decline in ovarian function with menopause is associated with spontaneous increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 and interleukin-6. In general, estradiol seems to have anti-inflammatory effects on neutrophils, while progesterone seems to have pro-inflammatory effects on these cells. In males an increase in blood monocyte number is demonstrated as compared to females during menopause in the follicular phase. Increased potency to lyse other cells is found in postmenopausal females and in males as compared to females with a regular menstrual cycle. This is in line with the fact that natural killer (NK) cell activity is also decreased in postmenopausal females using hormone replacement therapy. In vitro estrogens appear to suppress NK cell activity. Estrogens appear to increase the numbers and function of regulatory T lymphocytes, which inhibit the adaptive immune response. In contrast, progesterone may counteract the estrogen effects. Sex differences in immune responses therefore account for, at least in part, the sex differences in incidence and progression of liver disease.


Keywords: TNF-αa, interleukin-1, interleukin-6, estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, menopause, hormone replacement therapy, cytotoxic T cell, NK cell, regulatory T cell, immune system

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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
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      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1518
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 316574772 and j.to_ip >=316574772 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740775697 and j.to_date >= 1740775697 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 435) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 316574772 and j.to_ip >=316574772 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740775697 and j.to_date >= 1740775697 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 435) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 316574772 and j.to_ip >=316574772 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1740775697 and j.to_date >= 1740775697 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 435)
      1.04msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 821 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1740775697 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1740775697 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.68msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 821
      • 3: 1740775697
      • 4: 1740775697
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='a17d283a207cbc3216f11a5ca8e249e2'
      3.59msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:291
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Keywords
    12Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        elRrYozmRLhbPgSASRcij5rVpz6KeI87LWwTSC4C
        uc_cart_id
        a17d283a207cbc3216f11a5ca8e249e2
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/435" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/435
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
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        request_cookies
        0 of 0
        array:1 [ "wayfindertarget" => null ]
        response_headers
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "content-type" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html; charset=UTF-8" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache, private" ] "date" => array:1 [ 0 => "Fri, 28 Feb 2025 20:48:17 GMT" ] "set-cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IlViamV5WlJRd2pmaGg0c1d1UHBmU3c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV2lUdGxZNTdOalM2Ly9URjdTOHoyRndzaE9Sb3J2WnVleWNYK2pHTW1ZdTZtYXZndWRjTGJMWWFRbWNhc0k0WWdUcmJmS0VuKzhFdU1oa0x3MXptV0U1eE05NnduMC91QVk4Rll2Zk91RkJSMnZ2UHJTelA2YnNIRGVVdEZwclkiLCJtYWMiOiJmMjQyMWI5YzI0YjliM2UzYzQ0M2ViOWRlODI2OWRlZWEyNWRjNzYwNGYxZDU4OTIxNDMxNDM5ZGM2Y2NkNjI4IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Mon, 03 Mar 2025 08:48:17 GMT; Max-Age=216000; path=/; secure; samesite=laxXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IlViamV5WlJRd2pmaGg0c1d1UHBmU3c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV2lUdGxZNTdOalM2Ly9URjdTOHoyRndzaE9Sb3J2WnVleWNYK2pHTW1ZdTZtYXZndWRjTGJMWWFRbWNhc0k0WWdUcmJmS" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjZkcDgyWi9yT0dxelVwTWR6SlZTTlE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQlV5d2lXaDJYd2swT2hDb3pZdXhJOFpwa2R3MkY1YzNqQ09LeFJ1RGU0ODR1RzBldmhkMmErUkVtc2ZjZTZtdCtrclRjZXUzcEpPRU5EQlliNENiY2RJL3pScFJjbTR4VHlMb0JOTjY0a0JDUldVSnJDcVBDd0hsYm9oeHhCUWMiLCJtYWMiOiIyNTgyMGJiZTljNjc1M2Y4MTVjZDMyYmUzZTNiNmJiNzc1Yzc0MjAxYjg1ZjI0ZjAwNmQwNDJmZjY2N2MzNmM5IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponly; samesite=laxalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjZkcDgyWi9yT0dxelVwTWR6SlZTTlE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQlV5d2lXaDJYd2swT2hDb3pZdXhJOFpwa2R3MkY1YzNqQ09LeFJ1RGU0ODR1RzBldmhkMmErUkV" ] "Set-Cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IlViamV5WlJRd2pmaGg0c1d1UHBmU3c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV2lUdGxZNTdOalM2Ly9URjdTOHoyRndzaE9Sb3J2WnVleWNYK2pHTW1ZdTZtYXZndWRjTGJMWWFRbWNhc0k0WWdUcmJmS0VuKzhFdU1oa0x3MXptV0U1eE05NnduMC91QVk4Rll2Zk91RkJSMnZ2UHJTelA2YnNIRGVVdEZwclkiLCJtYWMiOiJmMjQyMWI5YzI0YjliM2UzYzQ0M2ViOWRlODI2OWRlZWEyNWRjNzYwNGYxZDU4OTIxNDMxNDM5ZGM2Y2NkNjI4IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Mon, 03-Mar-2025 08:48:17 GMT; path=/; secureXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IlViamV5WlJRd2pmaGg0c1d1UHBmU3c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV2lUdGxZNTdOalM2Ly9URjdTOHoyRndzaE9Sb3J2WnVleWNYK2pHTW1ZdTZtYXZndWRjTGJMWWFRbWNhc0k0WWdUcmJmS" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjZkcDgyWi9yT0dxelVwTWR6SlZTTlE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQlV5d2lXaDJYd2swT2hDb3pZdXhJOFpwa2R3MkY1YzNqQ09LeFJ1RGU0ODR1RzBldmhkMmErUkVtc2ZjZTZtdCtrclRjZXUzcEpPRU5EQlliNENiY2RJL3pScFJjbTR4VHlMb0JOTjY0a0JDUldVSnJDcVBDd0hsYm9oeHhCUWMiLCJtYWMiOiIyNTgyMGJiZTljNjc1M2Y4MTVjZDMyYmUzZTNiNmJiNzc1Yzc0MjAxYjg1ZjI0ZjAwNmQwNDJmZjY2N2MzNmM5IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponlyalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjZkcDgyWi9yT0dxelVwTWR6SlZTTlE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQlV5d2lXaDJYd2swT2hDb3pZdXhJOFpwa2R3MkY1YzNqQ09LeFJ1RGU0ODR1RzBldmhkMmErUkV" ] ]
        session_attributes
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "_token" => "elRrYozmRLhbPgSASRcij5rVpz6KeI87LWwTSC4C" "uc_cart_id" => "a17d283a207cbc3216f11a5ca8e249e2" "_previous" => array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/435" ] "_flash" => array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ] "PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA" => [] ]
        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-28 20:48:17GET/chapter/4351121914