Modern Occupational Diseases Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Management and Prevention

Acute Respiratory Infections: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Management, and Prevention

Author(s): Oluwasanmi Oladapo Adenaiye, Kathleen Marie McPhaul and Donald K. Milton * .

Pp: 145-163 (19)

DOI: 10.2174/9789815049138122010012

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

 Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are infectious diseases of the respiratory tract caused by viruses, bacteria, and atypical bacteria. They range in severity and even mild cases may cause a significant reduction in workplace productivity. ARIs commonly occur in outbreaks and disproportionally impact workers in occupations where workers are in close proximity to co-workers, members of the public, or where they reside in densely populated housing. High-risk workers include those in the healthcare sector, protective service, food and meat processing, service, and education industries. A person can become infected by inhaling virus-laden aerosols, having virus-contaminated sprayborne drops impinge on exposed mucous membranes, and touching contaminated surfaces followed by self-inoculation. More than one transfer process may be involved in the transmission, and the dominant route may differ for different causative agents, environments, and activity patterns. Preventing ARI transmission in the workplace must be holistic in approach and begin with anticipation and recognition of potential risks, reinforced by the continuous evaluation and implementation of control strategies. Control measures should be layered and multiple routes of transmission should be addressed. Controls should be adapted to the specific workplace and the ARI to prevent pathogen introduction, rapidly detect cases, and promptly eliminate exposure. Prevention and control can be accomplished by promoting vaccination, improving ventilation and air cleaning, providing paid sick leave, flexible working conditions, and work-from-home options. Promoting hand sanitation and providing appropriate personal protective equipment are important but never sufficient in isolation. Occupational health professionals should partner with workplace engineers and human resource departments to design effective programs.


Keywords: Acute respiratory infections, Coronaviruses, COVID-19, Employee Health Services, Infectious Diseases, Influenza, MERS, occupational Health, Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Rhinovirus, SARS, SARS-CoV-2, Workplace.

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      • 16. app/Models/Subject.php:255
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      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
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      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
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      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
      • 12. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1465
      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 14. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
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      220μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022ContentAccess.php#647
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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
      • 12. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1478
      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 14. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1518
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221922387 and j.to_ip >=221922387 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739834833 and j.to_date >= 1739834833 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 17827) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221922387 and j.to_ip >=221922387 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739834833 and j.to_date >= 1739834833 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 17827) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221922387 and j.to_ip >=221922387 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739834833 and j.to_date >= 1739834833 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 17827)
      570μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 3407 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1739834833 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1739834833 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.03msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 3407
      • 3: 1739834833
      • 4: 1739834833
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='1dbf5d79564ded35c476ba11ea7a0603'
      200μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:260
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Keywords
    13Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        WtspaksQX6xfQRD7zBobyIo89xskP8tz8xMlNcLH
        uc_cart_id
        1dbf5d79564ded35c476ba11ea7a0603
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/17827" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/17827
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
        array:17 [ "x-https" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => "alpha.eurekaselect.com" ] "priority" => array:1 [ 0 => "u=0, i" ] "cookie" => array:1 [ 0 => "wayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IkJMQ2wyb0swZUxDWlMvdTMvM01CTWc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiWVZnK0tWdEwvZzJmb211UlRYSDFqVnAzRmpqN1I5eGhzTWcyaGpOcWRvOD0iLCJtYWMiOiI4NjgxM2QzMjk3NTQzODRhZTFkYzRiM2VkYTZiNTM4MzQ0MmEyOGY2NTkwZDRhYWE4ZTBhZTJjMzQ5MzM2ZjFmIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3Dwayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IkJMQ2wyb0swZUxDWlMvdTMvM01CTWc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiWVZnK0tWdEwvZzJmb211UlRYSDFqVnAzRmpqN1I5eGhzTWcyaGpOcWRvOD0iLCJtYWMiOiI4NjgxM2QzMjk3NTQz" ] "accept-encoding" => array:1 [ 0 => "gzip, deflate, br, zstd" ] "sec-fetch-dest" => array:1 [ 0 => "document" ] "sec-fetch-user" => array:1 [ 0 => "?1" ] "sec-fetch-mode" => array:1 [ 0 => "navigate" ] "sec-fetch-site" => array:1 [ 0 => "none" ] "accept" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,*/*;q=0.8,application/signed-exchange;v=b3;q=0.7" ] "user-agent" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mozilla/5.0 AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko; compatible; ClaudeBot/1.0; +claudebot@anthropic.com)" ] "upgrade-insecure-requests" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "sec-ch-ua-platform" => array:1 [ 0 => ""Windows"" ] "sec-ch-ua-mobile" => array:1 [ 0 => "?0" ] "sec-ch-ua" => array:1 [ 0 => ""HeadlessChrome";v="129", "Not=A?Brand";v="8", "Chromium";v="129"" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] "pragma" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] ]
        request_cookies
        0 of 0
        array:1 [ "wayfindertarget" => null ]
        response_headers
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "content-type" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html; charset=UTF-8" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache, private" ] "date" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mon, 17 Feb 2025 23:27:13 GMT" ] "set-cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6Inp1akJlaWEvaEVoSFZTZVZmQ21mamc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTkNYY05VZERncnU4dUU1NTdKY3NoV2JLVXVTbmlxcEUxQzhMd1RxSkN0eVYwYzNUS0dSRFdhRjRKS1V6ME5FaWgwNkdTb3AxOEVyY0ozU1ZQY0N3cWJnY1FFdlE4a3B5NkMwUTYvTDEyTzRQc3pBdkJsUWx1enU2RG43OEhFc0giLCJtYWMiOiI5MWFhMzQ1NDgzZGIwMzE0YzMwZWRiZTlmMzNmNjNhY2Y5OGIwMGU1NDc5YzlkYTgzZWRmYTZkNjNiNzhjYzRiIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20 Feb 2025 11:27:13 GMT; Max-Age=216000; path=/; secure; samesite=laxXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6Inp1akJlaWEvaEVoSFZTZVZmQ21mamc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTkNYY05VZERncnU4dUU1NTdKY3NoV2JLVXVTbmlxcEUxQzhMd1RxSkN0eVYwYzNUS0dSRFdhRjRKS1V6ME5FaWgwNkdTb" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjBvazNxTVlSWFMzSWwxRkw3ZWZkZEE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiMGxhVmhzZnhKWXBUeHMxTTczZ1ZmeTNmWmVNN2h3WlpnUW1KN3RRQitUTEhSNUd2NlpJR2dUelY2b1BhVk9zaHlBcXNISzQzRm1EdXlGelRCWG8xYTBwQmFBaEZ6bnRWU2ZRQUZpY1RwYzcwbmdQeVBBZlBxd3VlYkNMNDA4cGYiLCJtYWMiOiI1MDliMzdkMmFlYjk0YTZhY2M4Mjg0MjViOTkwODE5ODc3Njg5ZTI3ZjEwNWI0YzhkMWZhZTZjYzY1MTIwNjlhIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponly; samesite=laxalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjBvazNxTVlSWFMzSWwxRkw3ZWZkZEE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiMGxhVmhzZnhKWXBUeHMxTTczZ1ZmeTNmWmVNN2h3WlpnUW1KN3RRQitUTEhSNUd2NlpJR2dUelY" ] "Set-Cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6Inp1akJlaWEvaEVoSFZTZVZmQ21mamc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTkNYY05VZERncnU4dUU1NTdKY3NoV2JLVXVTbmlxcEUxQzhMd1RxSkN0eVYwYzNUS0dSRFdhRjRKS1V6ME5FaWgwNkdTb3AxOEVyY0ozU1ZQY0N3cWJnY1FFdlE4a3B5NkMwUTYvTDEyTzRQc3pBdkJsUWx1enU2RG43OEhFc0giLCJtYWMiOiI5MWFhMzQ1NDgzZGIwMzE0YzMwZWRiZTlmMzNmNjNhY2Y5OGIwMGU1NDc5YzlkYTgzZWRmYTZkNjNiNzhjYzRiIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20-Feb-2025 11:27:13 GMT; path=/; secureXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6Inp1akJlaWEvaEVoSFZTZVZmQ21mamc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTkNYY05VZERncnU4dUU1NTdKY3NoV2JLVXVTbmlxcEUxQzhMd1RxSkN0eVYwYzNUS0dSRFdhRjRKS1V6ME5FaWgwNkdTb" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjBvazNxTVlSWFMzSWwxRkw3ZWZkZEE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiMGxhVmhzZnhKWXBUeHMxTTczZ1ZmeTNmWmVNN2h3WlpnUW1KN3RRQitUTEhSNUd2NlpJR2dUelY2b1BhVk9zaHlBcXNISzQzRm1EdXlGelRCWG8xYTBwQmFBaEZ6bnRWU2ZRQUZpY1RwYzcwbmdQeVBBZlBxd3VlYkNMNDA4cGYiLCJtYWMiOiI1MDliMzdkMmFlYjk0YTZhY2M4Mjg0MjViOTkwODE5ODc3Njg5ZTI3ZjEwNWI0YzhkMWZhZTZjYzY1MTIwNjlhIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponlyalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6IjBvazNxTVlSWFMzSWwxRkw3ZWZkZEE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiMGxhVmhzZnhKWXBUeHMxTTczZ1ZmeTNmWmVNN2h3WlpnUW1KN3RRQitUTEhSNUd2NlpJR2dUelY" ] ]
        session_attributes
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "_token" => "WtspaksQX6xfQRD7zBobyIo89xskP8tz8xMlNcLH" "uc_cart_id" => "1dbf5d79564ded35c476ba11ea7a0603" "_previous" => array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/17827" ] "_flash" => array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ] "PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA" => [] ]
        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-17 23:27:13GET/chapter/178271121915