Breast Cancer: Current Trends in Molecular Research

Immune-Endocrine Perspectives of Breast Cancer

Author(s): Karan Singh Saini*, Shankar Suman and Rituraj Konwar

Pp: 22-61 (40)

DOI: 10.2174/9781681089522112010005

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Cancer is the consequence of the recalcitrant multiplication of the transformed cells. Cancer cells grow and proliferate at a fast pace and do not follow normal regulation of cell division. Breast cancer is a heterogeneous group of diseases, which is the second leading cause of death among women. Although androgen is primarily considered a male steroid hormone, it also has an important role in the female reproductive system. The literature evidence suggests the role of androgen receptors (AR) in the normal development of the breast. At puberty, the expression of AR is even more than ER, suggesting its importance during the process of sexual development; its activity maintains the ER-induced cell proliferation and normal development of the breast. Epidemiological studies have suggested a positive correlation between high endogenous androgens and the risk of breast cancer in both pre- and postmenopausal women. In both ER and PR-positive breast cancers, AR is expressed in 60-70% of the cases. AR is also reported to be co-expressed with ER in around 80-90% of breast cancer cases and is considered an independent prognostic factor of ER-positive breast cancers. Tumor-microenvironment has a complex role in tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis. Tumor-infiltrating and resident cells secretes a variety of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, which in turn either inhibit or promote tumor growth. Immunosuppressive and immuno-inductive effects of androgen have been reported in various studies. Androgens have been reported to influence the adaptive immune system more than the innate immune system in many ways. Crosstalk of androgen and cytokine signaling has many effects in breast cancer epidemiology. So, in this chapter, we will discuss the various immune-endocrine perspectives of breast cancers. 


Keywords: Adaptive immunity, Androgens, Apocrine breast cancer, Cancer immunoediting, Dihydrotestosterone, Innate immunity, T cytotoxic cells, T helper cells.

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      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221975217 and j.to_ip >=221975217 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739835120 and j.to_date >= 1739835120 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 17270) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221975217 and j.to_ip >=221975217 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739835120 and j.to_date >= 1739835120 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 17270) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221975217 and j.to_ip >=221975217 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739835120 and j.to_date >= 1739835120 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 17270)
      620μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 3367 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1739835120 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1739835120 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.15msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 3367
      • 3: 1739835120
      • 4: 1739835120
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='bd69562e8fcb00a480b1ca5a9d8d86b9'
      220μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:260
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Keywords
    8Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        YQW1Vh59f4UHr0Rjfo3F8oUCan65bIHex207LlhM
        uc_cart_id
        bd69562e8fcb00a480b1ca5a9d8d86b9
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/17270" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/17270
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
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        request_cookies
        0 of 0
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        response_headers
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        session_attributes
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        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-17 23:32:00GET/chapter/172701121910