Chemical-Induced Seizures: Mechanisms, Consequences and Treatment

Kainic Acid Induced Seizures and Brain Damage: Mechanism and Relevant Therapeutic Approaches

Author(s): Feng Ru Tang, Koichi Kato, Weng Keong Loke

Pp: 80-88 (9)

DOI: 10.2174/978160805274511101010080

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

By the systemic (i.p., s.c., or i.v.) or local intracerebral injection of kainic acid (KA) into different regions of the brain of experimental animals, status epilepticus and brain damage are induced. After a latent period, progressive neuronal loss, axon sprouting and rewiring, and spontaneously recurrent seizures occurred, which are similar to the pathogenesis of the human temporal lobe epilepsy. Hence, KA models have been considered to be suitable for clarifying the mechanism of onsets of spontaneously recurrent seizures in human and for evaluating or screening anti-epileptic drugs. In this paper, we will review different seizure models induced by KA and its relevant neuropathological changes, discuss possible mechanisms for seizure generation and summarize current therapeutic approaches to control seizures and neuropathological changes. Hopefully, it will shed light on better understanding the mechanism of epiletogenesis in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, and provide some clues for the development of novel therapeutic approaches to effectively control human intractable epilepsy.

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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
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      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 309679543 and j.to_ip >=309679543 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739834409 and j.to_date >= 1739834409 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 1694) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 309679543 and j.to_ip >=309679543 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739834409 and j.to_date >= 1739834409 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 1694) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 309679543 and j.to_ip >=309679543 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739834409 and j.to_date >= 1739834409 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 1694)
      600μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 912 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1739834409 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1739834409 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.15msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 912
      • 3: 1739834409
      • 4: 1739834409
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='ee76834c6cb8ea81d1ed5ed004b9ad19'
      290μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:260
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Keywords
    1Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        KBMa6xMQfuoAbbcz6KB0PWtXN1UVmot2civI7W2z
        uc_cart_id
        ee76834c6cb8ea81d1ed5ed004b9ad19
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/1694" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/1694
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
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        request_cookies
        0 of 0
        array:1 [ "wayfindertarget" => null ]
        response_headers
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "content-type" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html; charset=UTF-8" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache, private" ] "date" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mon, 17 Feb 2025 23:20:09 GMT" ] "set-cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkhJQk1xYndpNXBFWFN1dTdRdm5Ndnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV0diVHN3TnZDZTFWMlVzYkVKTlp2cVNRSGIzaEt2dDFFQjhCQXM0aXpMU0dUb2pVc3ZmY0RLbXBiYWo3U3RIdGtLRUZESXZPY292c1RTemtMdFNINGx6TlIrd3NENStLVHREcFd4QWlSajRDaE5NbjE2Q1JpV0lYc1IvUkhlWjYiLCJtYWMiOiIyNWRiYzYyYzI5YmU3Y2NkNTFlZGZkZWIyMzg1YmNlNzc2ZmU1Mjg4NDgxMzNmMmIxM2NjYTVlYzRlNTNmODliIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20 Feb 2025 11:20:09 GMT; Max-Age=216000; path=/; secure; samesite=laxXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkhJQk1xYndpNXBFWFN1dTdRdm5Ndnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV0diVHN3TnZDZTFWMlVzYkVKTlp2cVNRSGIzaEt2dDFFQjhCQXM0aXpMU0dUb2pVc3ZmY0RLbXBiYWo3U3RIdGtLRUZES" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6Ik42UzI3eWp2VWZIWCs4emNFK2lRelE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiM3l6YXYwOXZoNEVWQTYzYXk1VG85T21ueUdxLzBCbmZoaTBiUVR6RFhWb25NQjYzU0tkNjNLY3VCeElRTGxVVXhXYWFKbUUwSGpmV0daWCt4aE9tNzZybHhJU3FBV3Y5WTNYcGFTbjJxK1NZQ2VBWE1LL01lT09wdVpUMVVCTDkiLCJtYWMiOiJjZDJiZjAwN2QyYWY2MzI1MDk2NGMxOTcyNjA2YTFiZjExZjMyNWVlMjQyNjkyYWVmY2JjMjcxNjljOTlkMTUxIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponly; samesite=laxalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6Ik42UzI3eWp2VWZIWCs4emNFK2lRelE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiM3l6YXYwOXZoNEVWQTYzYXk1VG85T21ueUdxLzBCbmZoaTBiUVR6RFhWb25NQjYzU0tkNjNLY3V" ] "Set-Cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkhJQk1xYndpNXBFWFN1dTdRdm5Ndnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV0diVHN3TnZDZTFWMlVzYkVKTlp2cVNRSGIzaEt2dDFFQjhCQXM0aXpMU0dUb2pVc3ZmY0RLbXBiYWo3U3RIdGtLRUZESXZPY292c1RTemtMdFNINGx6TlIrd3NENStLVHREcFd4QWlSajRDaE5NbjE2Q1JpV0lYc1IvUkhlWjYiLCJtYWMiOiIyNWRiYzYyYzI5YmU3Y2NkNTFlZGZkZWIyMzg1YmNlNzc2ZmU1Mjg4NDgxMzNmMmIxM2NjYTVlYzRlNTNmODliIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20-Feb-2025 11:20:09 GMT; path=/; secureXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkhJQk1xYndpNXBFWFN1dTdRdm5Ndnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiV0diVHN3TnZDZTFWMlVzYkVKTlp2cVNRSGIzaEt2dDFFQjhCQXM0aXpMU0dUb2pVc3ZmY0RLbXBiYWo3U3RIdGtLRUZES" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6Ik42UzI3eWp2VWZIWCs4emNFK2lRelE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiM3l6YXYwOXZoNEVWQTYzYXk1VG85T21ueUdxLzBCbmZoaTBiUVR6RFhWb25NQjYzU0tkNjNLY3VCeElRTGxVVXhXYWFKbUUwSGpmV0daWCt4aE9tNzZybHhJU3FBV3Y5WTNYcGFTbjJxK1NZQ2VBWE1LL01lT09wdVpUMVVCTDkiLCJtYWMiOiJjZDJiZjAwN2QyYWY2MzI1MDk2NGMxOTcyNjA2YTFiZjExZjMyNWVlMjQyNjkyYWVmY2JjMjcxNjljOTlkMTUxIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponlyalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6Ik42UzI3eWp2VWZIWCs4emNFK2lRelE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiM3l6YXYwOXZoNEVWQTYzYXk1VG85T21ueUdxLzBCbmZoaTBiUVR6RFhWb25NQjYzU0tkNjNLY3V" ] ]
        session_attributes
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "_token" => "KBMa6xMQfuoAbbcz6KB0PWtXN1UVmot2civI7W2z" "uc_cart_id" => "ee76834c6cb8ea81d1ed5ed004b9ad19" "_previous" => array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/1694" ] "_flash" => array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ] "PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA" => [] ]
        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-17 23:20:09GET/chapter/1694112193