Nanotherapeutics for the Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Diagnosis, Molecular Pathogenesis, Biomarkers, and Conventional Therapy

Author(s): Biswajit Mukherjee*, Manasadeepa Rajagopalan, Samrat Chakraborty, Prasanta Ghosh, Manisheeta Ray, Ramkrishna Sen and Iman Ehsan

Pp: 1-97 (97)

DOI: 10.2174/9789815039740122010003

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most common liver malignancy, has
been a significant cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Cirrhosis, hepatic viral
infections, fatty liver, and alcohol consumption are notable risk factors associated with
HCC. Furthermore, a crucial challenge in the therapeutic management of HCC patients
is the late-stage diagnosis, primarily due to the asymptomatic early stage. Despite the
availability of various preventive techniques, diagnoses, and several treatment options,
the mortality rate persists. Ongoing investigation on exploring molecular pathogenesis
of HCC and identifying different prognostic and diagnostic markers may intervene in
the conventional mode of treatment option for better therapeutic management of the
disease. Subsequently, tumor site and its size, extrahepatic spread, and liver function
are the underlying fundamental factors in treating treatment modality. The development
in both surgical and non-surgical methods has resulted in admirable benefits in the
survival rates. Understanding the mechanism(s) of tumor progression and the ability of
the tumor cells to develop resistance against drugs is extremely important for designing
future therapy concerning HCC. This chapter has accumulated the current literature and
provided a vivid description of HCC based on its classification, risk factors, stagebased
diagnosis systems, molecular pathogenesis, prognostic/diagnostic markers, and
the existing conventional treatment approaches.


Keywords: Cellular signaling pathway, Cirrhosis, HCC molecular pathogenesis, HCC- prognostic/diagnostic markers, HCC risk factors, Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), cell signaling during HCC development, Ongoing therapy against HCC, Stage-based diagnosis, Tumor microenvironment.

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      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Pipeline/Pipeline.php:183
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      280μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022ContentAccess.php#647
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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
      • 12. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1465
      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 14. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
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      250μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022ContentAccess.php#647
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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
      • 12. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1478
      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 14. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
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      590μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1518
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 51803705 and j.to_ip >=51803705 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739988719 and j.to_date >= 1739988719 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 16540) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 51803705 and j.to_ip >=51803705 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739988719 and j.to_date >= 1739988719 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 16540) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 51803705 and j.to_ip >=51803705 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739988719 and j.to_date >= 1739988719 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 16540)
      580μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 3312 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1739988719 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1739988719 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.12msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 3312
      • 3: 1739988719
      • 4: 1739988719
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='4164d381703803ce0c161210198d1892'
      300μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:260
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Keywords
    10Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        EJCsWf2EdPeBuuKEDwFXeEujwng73nDwX2FCh5du
        uc_cart_id
        4164d381703803ce0c161210198d1892
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/16540" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/16540
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
        array:17 [ "x-https" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => "alpha.eurekaselect.com" ] "priority" => array:1 [ 0 => "u=0, i" ] "cookie" => array:1 [ 0 => "wayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IjB0bTUwZU50ZFVmK0t2dVM1ZXV0cHc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTk0wbzhRM0dSeEV0MDNkUHlFd3QzSlR3R1BtV3lvZjM5Tm1BVGROUjVDcz0iLCJtYWMiOiJmNWQ4MDYzZTlkM2IzZTU1MDlhZjcyNmVmZmVjM2JlMjExMWVlMGJmNjJjZmYyNzczNzVkYTJlNzcyYTk3OTRlIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3Dwayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IjB0bTUwZU50ZFVmK0t2dVM1ZXV0cHc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTk0wbzhRM0dSeEV0MDNkUHlFd3QzSlR3R1BtV3lvZjM5Tm1BVGROUjVDcz0iLCJtYWMiOiJmNWQ4MDYzZTlkM2Iz" ] "accept-encoding" => array:1 [ 0 => "gzip, deflate, br, zstd" ] "sec-fetch-dest" => array:1 [ 0 => "document" ] "sec-fetch-user" => array:1 [ 0 => "?1" ] "sec-fetch-mode" => array:1 [ 0 => "navigate" ] "sec-fetch-site" => array:1 [ 0 => "none" ] "accept" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,*/*;q=0.8,application/signed-exchange;v=b3;q=0.7" ] "user-agent" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mozilla/5.0 AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko; compatible; ClaudeBot/1.0; +claudebot@anthropic.com)" ] "upgrade-insecure-requests" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "sec-ch-ua-platform" => array:1 [ 0 => ""Windows"" ] "sec-ch-ua-mobile" => array:1 [ 0 => "?0" ] "sec-ch-ua" => array:1 [ 0 => ""HeadlessChrome";v="129", "Not=A?Brand";v="8", "Chromium";v="129"" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] "pragma" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] ]
        request_cookies
        0 of 0
        array:1 [ "wayfindertarget" => null ]
        response_headers
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "content-type" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html; charset=UTF-8" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache, private" ] "date" => array:1 [ 0 => "Wed, 19 Feb 2025 18:11:59 GMT" ] "set-cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkFOV3FLSXRHYk96Z0JlalkwRGEwa0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiY2NmRjczandZS3RjanBtUVZXWTR0TXU4NDVYaEw4b0dhNy9sUXREWWEwSURqaTlBL3oxdjlHZzRwQnJrRlprQWliZ24vS1AxekUyS00vajRjWTM1ZWpKYzh2alBJSzFINnlLTzBVbllPRGd1R1I3RVUzeWtRU2kweWY1a043YUQiLCJtYWMiOiJlOWM0YWM3MWVhY2VmNjE5OGU1YTFlNWU4N2RmZGUxYTdiZWRmNTdiYzU5ZmRkODY2YzY1NDE4ZjgwODAxMGE5IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Sat, 22 Feb 2025 06:11:59 GMT; Max-Age=216000; path=/; secure; samesite=laxXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkFOV3FLSXRHYk96Z0JlalkwRGEwa0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiY2NmRjczandZS3RjanBtUVZXWTR0TXU4NDVYaEw4b0dhNy9sUXREWWEwSURqaTlBL3oxdjlHZzRwQnJrRlprQWliZ24vS" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6InUraFJ5cWpoQkdRdjgzbWFudDEwUUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQVcrRHRmNThER3FjZXlnOGlLMllTV2JhdjY4dytDQ2pxTUpRcnY0akwyakc0clRTWWJlQk43WEpmMzdGNUNoRE9PQjZ3aUlNUERub3JmVFZ4VXorRFBZNTRzaElTbkt0VTV6UHdoeDhZNnN2K2tJOXJJRHRwS3QwRUcyM0h5V0ciLCJtYWMiOiJkNDQ2MjI5NTJlMjNhZDJhMjY0YzFjMjdmODllOTBjODY0OGY2YTA1OWUwZTJkZDZjN2FlNDdhNmEzMjE2NDgyIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponly; samesite=laxalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6InUraFJ5cWpoQkdRdjgzbWFudDEwUUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQVcrRHRmNThER3FjZXlnOGlLMllTV2JhdjY4dytDQ2pxTUpRcnY0akwyakc0clRTWWJlQk43WEp" ] "Set-Cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkFOV3FLSXRHYk96Z0JlalkwRGEwa0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiY2NmRjczandZS3RjanBtUVZXWTR0TXU4NDVYaEw4b0dhNy9sUXREWWEwSURqaTlBL3oxdjlHZzRwQnJrRlprQWliZ24vS1AxekUyS00vajRjWTM1ZWpKYzh2alBJSzFINnlLTzBVbllPRGd1R1I3RVUzeWtRU2kweWY1a043YUQiLCJtYWMiOiJlOWM0YWM3MWVhY2VmNjE5OGU1YTFlNWU4N2RmZGUxYTdiZWRmNTdiYzU5ZmRkODY2YzY1NDE4ZjgwODAxMGE5IiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Sat, 22-Feb-2025 06:11:59 GMT; path=/; secureXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6IkFOV3FLSXRHYk96Z0JlalkwRGEwa0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiY2NmRjczandZS3RjanBtUVZXWTR0TXU4NDVYaEw4b0dhNy9sUXREWWEwSURqaTlBL3oxdjlHZzRwQnJrRlprQWliZ24vS" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6InUraFJ5cWpoQkdRdjgzbWFudDEwUUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQVcrRHRmNThER3FjZXlnOGlLMllTV2JhdjY4dytDQ2pxTUpRcnY0akwyakc0clRTWWJlQk43WEpmMzdGNUNoRE9PQjZ3aUlNUERub3JmVFZ4VXorRFBZNTRzaElTbkt0VTV6UHdoeDhZNnN2K2tJOXJJRHRwS3QwRUcyM0h5V0ciLCJtYWMiOiJkNDQ2MjI5NTJlMjNhZDJhMjY0YzFjMjdmODllOTBjODY0OGY2YTA1OWUwZTJkZDZjN2FlNDdhNmEzMjE2NDgyIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponlyalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6InUraFJ5cWpoQkdRdjgzbWFudDEwUUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQVcrRHRmNThER3FjZXlnOGlLMllTV2JhdjY4dytDQ2pxTUpRcnY0akwyakc0clRTWWJlQk43WEp" ] ]
        session_attributes
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "_token" => "EJCsWf2EdPeBuuKEDwFXeEujwng73nDwX2FCh5du" "uc_cart_id" => "4164d381703803ce0c161210198d1892" "_previous" => array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/16540" ] "_flash" => array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ] "PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA" => [] ]
        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-19 18:11:59GET/chapter/165401121912