Frontiers in Protein and Peptide Sciences

Volume: 2

Proteins and Peptides as Biomarkers for Diagnosis of Cardiovascular Diseases

Author(s): Sehar Aslam, Samman Munir, Muhammad Shareef Masoud, Usman Ali Ashfaq, Nazia Nahid, Mohsin Khurshid and Muhammad Qasim * .

Pp: 298-322 (25)

DOI: 10.2174/9789815036663121020013

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

With the increase in the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases internationally, particularly cardiac failure (CF) and atherosclerosis, the investigation for new biological markers remains one of the main priorities. In contrast to complicated diagnostic methods that might not be appropriate to be employed on a larger population, biological markers are effective for the screening of the population. Owing to their non-invasive detection with typically high accuracy and sensitivity, circulating biomarkers have become increasingly significant for routine medical practice. Cardiac troponins and natriuretic peptides (NPs), specifically brain NP (BNP), mid-regional pro arterial NP, and N-terminal (NT) pro BNP, are validated blood biological markers in the diagnosis of CF and prediction of CF-associated outcomes. Inflammatory proteins like C-reactive protein can also have increased importance in anti-inflammatory treatment guidance. Moreover, next-generation biological markers like galectin-3, growth/differentiation factor 15, diverse miRNAs, and soluble suppression of tumorigenicity-2 might have additional value in the analysis of ventricular remodeling and differentiation of CF subtypes. In this chapter, we will first discuss the biological markers as per the major categories of cardiovascular disease, i.e., myocardial stress, inflammation, plaque instability, myocardial injury, systemic stress, calcium homeostasis, and platelet activation. Lastly, we will describe the multimarker methods, including various combinations of novel and established biomarkers that may improve the risk prediction of CF at the population level.


Keywords: Acute cardiac infractions, Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), Cardiac failure (CF), Congenital heart diseases (CHD), Natriuretic peptides (NPs).

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      • 14. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:784
      • 15. middleware::check_user_access:114
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      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
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      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
      • 12. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1465
      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 14. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
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      270μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022ContentAccess.php#647
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      • 11. app/Models/ContentAccess.php:647
      • 12. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1478
      • 13. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 14. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1518
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221948497 and j.to_ip >=221948497 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739848344 and j.to_date >= 1739848344 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 15999) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221948497 and j.to_ip >=221948497 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739848344 and j.to_date >= 1739848344 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 15999) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 221948497 and j.to_ip >=221948497 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739848344 and j.to_date >= 1739848344 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 15999)
      590μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 3159 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1739848344 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1739848344 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.05msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 3159
      • 3: 1739848344
      • 4: 1739848344
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='ee356fa5de762f7cc2f23e90d3e11d75'
      230μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:260
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Keywords
    5Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        z67axknCfz3QJYGPXq0QpnxOojf1bro1RtMoKmT1
        uc_cart_id
        ee356fa5de762f7cc2f23e90d3e11d75
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/15999" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/15999
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
        array:17 [ "x-https" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => "alpha.eurekaselect.com" ] "priority" => array:1 [ 0 => "u=0, i" ] "cookie" => array:1 [ 0 => "wayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IlBLRlJPc0xsU2pHOUpMNEEyMjNjSnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTGFLM0x4bUV4NThiUmFZQTVqdjNqOWF5VVdHU0hndUtyVUlOZVZlMXZMMD0iLCJtYWMiOiI5N2U3YTZhY2YxZDY4NGVmYmU2Mjc4YjE2OTUzOGM5ZmJkNjQ0NDc5ZTdkYzlmMDU2OGEzYzFiNzg5OTI5ZGVhIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3Dwayfindertarget=eyJpdiI6IlBLRlJPc0xsU2pHOUpMNEEyMjNjSnc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTGFLM0x4bUV4NThiUmFZQTVqdjNqOWF5VVdHU0hndUtyVUlOZVZlMXZMMD0iLCJtYWMiOiI5N2U3YTZhY2YxZDY4" ] "accept-encoding" => array:1 [ 0 => "gzip, deflate, br, zstd" ] "sec-fetch-dest" => array:1 [ 0 => "document" ] "sec-fetch-user" => array:1 [ 0 => "?1" ] "sec-fetch-mode" => array:1 [ 0 => "navigate" ] "sec-fetch-site" => array:1 [ 0 => "none" ] "accept" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,*/*;q=0.8,application/signed-exchange;v=b3;q=0.7" ] "user-agent" => array:1 [ 0 => "Mozilla/5.0 AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko; compatible; ClaudeBot/1.0; +claudebot@anthropic.com)" ] "upgrade-insecure-requests" => array:1 [ 0 => "1" ] "sec-ch-ua-platform" => array:1 [ 0 => ""Windows"" ] "sec-ch-ua-mobile" => array:1 [ 0 => "?0" ] "sec-ch-ua" => array:1 [ 0 => ""HeadlessChrome";v="129", "Not=A?Brand";v="8", "Chromium";v="129"" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] "pragma" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache" ] ]
        request_cookies
        0 of 0
        array:1 [ "wayfindertarget" => null ]
        response_headers
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "content-type" => array:1 [ 0 => "text/html; charset=UTF-8" ] "cache-control" => array:1 [ 0 => "no-cache, private" ] "date" => array:1 [ 0 => "Tue, 18 Feb 2025 03:12:24 GMT" ] "set-cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6ImdTbjdvVjRSaFdUTkhpWVE5akRha2c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTjI2WFNDR2VHbGc1L2xYalVCaC9sRnlRMzNXQmw5OE9rajFiaUtHV1BVdkMxNWVaZkhrZ0t0SmlrK0MzOGlGeENQb3ZSQTBPb3RFWHlUdFpUSkVOb29ieFlnYXc2VjVlcDA3RnBuTDcrQVRkS1Y0Y3ZvQ1BRWnNPQlFVTElPT2UiLCJtYWMiOiJlZWNlNzVmM2M4MGJmMDM4NzMzZTU1MWVkMDdjZTk4OTZkNWI4MmY2OWZhMDE1ZTA2NWY5ZThhZmM2YzE5YTBkIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20 Feb 2025 15:12:24 GMT; Max-Age=216000; path=/; secure; samesite=laxXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6ImdTbjdvVjRSaFdUTkhpWVE5akRha2c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTjI2WFNDR2VHbGc1L2xYalVCaC9sRnlRMzNXQmw5OE9rajFiaUtHV1BVdkMxNWVaZkhrZ0t0SmlrK0MzOGlGeENQb3ZSQ" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6ImRuSURyREw3Y0JWTUF2MTJoYVhsaFE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiU1BkdXhRTnkxTTRKVzAydGZ1SmNPMHFhYVdDWklVMXNkMCszV2JodjZlUDZyQ1JvUVdHeDQ2NElhandxK3N0QWxRbUFmWm1FY0pkZHRSQzM3V2J5U05oT2tTUUQ4NGwzNlF1SWk5OTc1RjcwdXZzeGpzMWR1SFJ0Mm82dUw2RVciLCJtYWMiOiI0N2I0OTJjZjkwNjhiNDU2MmEwMGU2ODg3YzdkYjgyZjBlMjQxN2JhODM3MjQ4YThlOTJhMzlmMWNiZGViYzFmIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponly; samesite=laxalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6ImRuSURyREw3Y0JWTUF2MTJoYVhsaFE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiU1BkdXhRTnkxTTRKVzAydGZ1SmNPMHFhYVdDWklVMXNkMCszV2JodjZlUDZyQ1JvUVdHeDQ2NEl" ] "Set-Cookie" => array:2 [ 0 => "XSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6ImdTbjdvVjRSaFdUTkhpWVE5akRha2c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTjI2WFNDR2VHbGc1L2xYalVCaC9sRnlRMzNXQmw5OE9rajFiaUtHV1BVdkMxNWVaZkhrZ0t0SmlrK0MzOGlGeENQb3ZSQTBPb3RFWHlUdFpUSkVOb29ieFlnYXc2VjVlcDA3RnBuTDcrQVRkS1Y0Y3ZvQ1BRWnNPQlFVTElPT2UiLCJtYWMiOiJlZWNlNzVmM2M4MGJmMDM4NzMzZTU1MWVkMDdjZTk4OTZkNWI4MmY2OWZhMDE1ZTA2NWY5ZThhZmM2YzE5YTBkIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; expires=Thu, 20-Feb-2025 15:12:24 GMT; path=/; secureXSRF-TOKEN=eyJpdiI6ImdTbjdvVjRSaFdUTkhpWVE5akRha2c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiTjI2WFNDR2VHbGc1L2xYalVCaC9sRnlRMzNXQmw5OE9rajFiaUtHV1BVdkMxNWVaZkhrZ0t0SmlrK0MzOGlGeENQb3ZSQ" 1 => "alphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6ImRuSURyREw3Y0JWTUF2MTJoYVhsaFE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiU1BkdXhRTnkxTTRKVzAydGZ1SmNPMHFhYVdDWklVMXNkMCszV2JodjZlUDZyQ1JvUVdHeDQ2NElhandxK3N0QWxRbUFmWm1FY0pkZHRSQzM3V2J5U05oT2tTUUQ4NGwzNlF1SWk5OTc1RjcwdXZzeGpzMWR1SFJ0Mm82dUw2RVciLCJtYWMiOiI0N2I0OTJjZjkwNjhiNDU2MmEwMGU2ODg3YzdkYjgyZjBlMjQxN2JhODM3MjQ4YThlOTJhMzlmMWNiZGViYzFmIiwidGFnIjoiIn0%3D; path=/; secure; httponlyalphaeurekaselectnet_session=eyJpdiI6ImRuSURyREw3Y0JWTUF2MTJoYVhsaFE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiU1BkdXhRTnkxTTRKVzAydGZ1SmNPMHFhYVdDWklVMXNkMCszV2JodjZlUDZyQ1JvUVdHeDQ2NEl" ] ]
        session_attributes
        0 of 0
        array:5 [ "_token" => "z67axknCfz3QJYGPXq0QpnxOojf1bro1RtMoKmT1" "uc_cart_id" => "ee356fa5de762f7cc2f23e90d3e11d75" "_previous" => array:1 [ "url" => "https://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/15999" ] "_flash" => array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ] "PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA" => [] ]
        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-18 03:12:24GET/chapter/15999112197