Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Indian Science

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2210-299X
ISSN (Online): 2210-3007

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

A Review on Psoriasis Pathophysiology, Clinical Appearance, and Pharmacotherapeutic Interventions

Author(s): Deepak Kumar, Sagarika Majhi* and Meenakshi Sharma

Volume 2, 2024

Published on: 08 December, 2023

Article ID: e2210299X256032 Pages: 21

DOI: 10.2174/012210299X256032231127060853

Price: $

Abstract

A chronic skin condition called psoriasis can manifest as plaque, flexural, guttate, pustular, and erythrodermic lesions, among other clinical symptoms. Sixty million people are believed to be affected by psoriasis worldwide. In India, the frequency ranges from 0.44 to 2.8%, with males affected two times more frequently than females in their third or fourth decade of life. An immune-mediated inflammation condition with a sizable genetic component is psoriasis. Due to its connection to psoriatic arthritis and the increased prevalence of cardiometabolic, hepatic, and psychiatric problems, a thorough and interdisciplinary strategy for treatment is required. Corticosteroids and analogs of vitamin D are examples of topical treatments for psoriasis. Phototherapy includes NB-UVB, psoralen, and ultraviolet radiation (PUVA). Standard systemic treatments include methotrexate, acitretin, and ciclosporin. This disease is useful for physicians and scientists since it might be used as a model for research into the underlying causes of chronic inflammation. It is also crucial for clinical trial scientists as a first-choice disease indication for preliminary research of new pathogenesis-based treatment approaches. This review covers both the therapeutic choices that have resulted from the analysis of the aggressive psoriatic pathways and the processes involved in the onset and progression of the disease. We start by writing regarding the important cell kinds and inflammatory mechanisms that initiate and maintain psoriatic inflammation. Next, we discuss how skin flora interacts with heredity, related epigenetic processes, and the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Finally, we provide a thorough analysis of recently targeted medications as well as well-known, extensively used treatments.

[1]
Expert Committee on Biological Standardization, World Health Organization. WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization: Sixty-sixth Report.. World Health Organization, 2016.
[2]
GBD 2016 DALYs and HALE Collaborators. Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 333 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet, 2017, 390(10100), 1260-1344.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32130-X] [PMID: 28919118]
[3]
Di Meglio, P.; Villanova, F.; Nestle, F.O. Psoriasis. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med., 2014, 4(8), a015354.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a015354] [PMID: 25085957]
[4]
Parisi, R.; Symmons, D.P.M.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Ashcroft, D.M. Global epidemiology of psoriasis: A systematic review of incidence and prevalence. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2013, 133(2), 377-385.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2012.339] [PMID: 23014338]
[5]
Veal, C.D.; Clough, R.L.; Barber, R.C.; Mason, S.; Tillman, D.; Ferry, B.; Jones, A.B.; Ameen, M.; Balendran, N.; Powis, S.H.; Burden, A.D.; Barker, J.N.W.N.; Trembath, R.C. Identification of a novel psoriasis susceptibility locus at 1p and evidence of epistasis between PSORS1 and candidate loci. J. Med. Genet., 2001, 38(1), 7-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jmg.38.1.7] [PMID: 11134234]
[6]
Nair, R.P.; Stuart, P.; Henseler, T.; Jenisch, S.; Chia, N.V.C.; Westphal, E.; Schork, N.J.; Kim, J.; Lim, H.W.; Christophers, E.; Voorhees, J.J.; Elder, J.T. Localization of psoriasis-susceptibility locus PSORS1 to a 60-kb interval telomeric to HLA-C. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 2000, 66(6), 1833-1844.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/302932] [PMID: 10801386]
[7]
Griffiths, C.E.M.; Christophers, E.; Barker, J.N.W.N.; Chalmers, R.J.G.; Chimenti, S.; Krueger, G.G.; Leonardi, C.; Menter, A.; Ortonne, J.P.; Fry, L. A classification of psoriasis vulgaris according to phenotype. Br. J. Dermatol., 2007, 156(2), 258-262.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2006.07675.x] [PMID: 17223864]
[8]
Henseler, T.; Christophers, E. Psoriasis of early and late onset: Characterization of two types of psoriasis vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 1985, 13(3), 450-456.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(85)70188-0] [PMID: 4056119]
[9]
Hawkins, R.D.; Byrne, J.H. Associative learning in invertebrates. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol., 2015, 7(5), a021709.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a021709] [PMID: 25877219]
[10]
Rendon, A.; Schäkel, K. Psoriasis pathogenesis and treatment. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2019, 20(6), 1475.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms20061475] [PMID: 30909615]
[11]
O’Doherty, C.J.; MacIntyre, C. Palmoplantar pustulosis and smoking. BMJ, 1985, 291(6499), 861-864.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.291.6499.861] [PMID: 3931743]
[12]
Setta-Kaffetzi, N.; Navarini, A.A.; Patel, V.M.; Pullabhatla, V.; Pink, A.E.; Choon, S.E.; Allen, M.A.; Burden, A.D.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Seyger, M.M.B.; Kirby, B.; Trembath, R.C.; Simpson, M.A.; Smith, C.H.; Capon, F.; Barker, J.N. Rare pathogenic variants in IL36RN underlie a spectrum of psoriasis-associated pustular phenotypes. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2013, 133(5), 1366-1369.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2012.490] [PMID: 23303454]
[13]
Gladman, D.D.; Antoni, C.; Mease, P.; Clegg, D.O.; Nash, P. Psoriatic arthritis: Epidemiology, clinical features, course, and outcome. Ann. Rheum. Dis., 2005, 64(Suppl 2), ii14-ii17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ard.2004.032482] [PMID: 15708927]
[14]
Ellinghaus, E.; Stuart, P.E.; Ellinghaus, D.; Nair, R.P.; Debrus, S.; Raelson, J.V.; Belouchi, M.; Tejasvi, T.; Li, Y.; Tsoi, L.C.; Onken, A.T.; Esko, T.; Metspalu, A.; Rahman, P.; Gladman, D.D.; Bowcock, A.M.; Helms, C.; Krueger, G.G.; Koks, S.; Kingo, K.; Gieger, C.; Erich Wichmann, H.; Mrowietz, U.; Weidinger, S.; Schreiber, S.; Abecasis, G.R.; Elder, J.T.; Weichenthal, M.; Franke, A. Genome-wide meta-analysis of psoriatic arthritis identifies susceptibility locus at REL. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2012, 132(4), 1133-1140.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2011.415] [PMID: 22170493]
[15]
Garbaraviciene, J.; Diehl, S.; Varwig, D.; Bylaite, M.; Ackermann, H.; Ludwig, R.J.; Boehncke, W.H. Platelet P-selectin reflects a state of cutaneous inflammation: Possible application to monitor treatment efficacy in psoriasis. Exp. Dermatol., 2010, 19(8), 736-741.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01095.x] [PMID: 20482619]
[16]
Lee, E.; Trepicchio, W.L.; Oestreicher, J.L.; Pittman, D.; Wang, F.; Chamian, F.; Dhodapkar, M.; Krueger, J.G. Increased expression of interleukin 23 p19 and p40 in lesional skin of patients with psoriasis vulgaris. J. Exp. Med., 2004, 199(1), 125-130.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20030451] [PMID: 14707118]
[17]
Tejasvi, T.; Stuart, P.E.; Chandran, V.; Voorhees, J.J.; Gladman, D.D.; Rahman, P.; Elder, J.T.; Nair, R.P. TNFAIP3 gene polymorphisms are associated with response to TNF blockade in psoriasis. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2012, 132(3), 593-600.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2011.376] [PMID: 22113471]
[18]
Suárez-Fariñas, M.; Fuentes-Duculan, J.; Lowes, M.A.; Krueger, J.G. Resolved psoriasis lesions retain expression of a subset of disease-related genes. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2011, 131(2), 391-400.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2010.280] [PMID: 20861854]
[19]
Braun-Falco, O.; Burg, G. Das entz�ndliche Infiltrat bei Psoriasis vulgaris. Arch. Dermatol. Res., 1970, 236(3), 297-314.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00508329]
[20]
Nestle, F.O.; Nickoloff, B.J. Role of dendritic cells in benign and malignant lymphocytic infiltrates of the skin. Dermatol. Clin., 1994, 12(2), 271-282.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0733-8635(18)30174-8] [PMID: 7913887]
[21]
Nickoloff, B.J. Skin innate immune system in psoriasis: Friend or foe? J. Clin. Invest., 1999, 104(9), 1161-1164.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI8633] [PMID: 10545511]
[22]
Nestle, F.O.; Conrad, C.; Tun-Kyi, A.; Homey, B.; Gombert, M.; Boyman, O.; Burg, G.; Liu, Y.J.; Gilliet, M. Plasmacytoid predendritic cells initiate psoriasis through interferon-α production. J. Exp. Med., 2005, 202(1), 135-143.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20050500] [PMID: 15998792]
[23]
Büchau, A.S.; Gallo, R.L. Innate immunity and antimicrobial defense systems in psoriasis. Clin. Dermatol., 2007, 25(6), 616-624.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2007.08.016] [PMID: 18021900]
[24]
Nestle, F.O.; Turka, L.A.; Nickoloff, B.J. Characterization of dermal dendritic cells in psoriasis. Autostimulation of T lymphocytes and induction of Th1 type cytokines. J. Clin. Invest., 1994, 94(1), 202-209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI117308] [PMID: 8040262]
[25]
Chamian, F.; Lowes, M.A.; Lin, S.L.; Lee, E.; Kikuchi, T.; Gilleaudeau, P.; Sullivan-Whalen, M.; Cardinale, I.; Khatcherian, A.; Novitskaya, I.; Wittkowski, K.M.; Krueger, J.G. Alefacept reduces infiltrating T cells, activated dendritic cells, and inflammatory genes in psoriasis vulgaris. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 2005, 102(6), 2075-2080.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0409569102] [PMID: 15671179]
[26]
Stratis, A.; Pasparakis, M.; Rupec, R.A.; Markur, D.; Hartmann, K.; Scharffetter-Kochanek, K.; Peters, T.; van Rooijen, N.; Krieg, T.; Haase, I. Pathogenic role for skin macrophages in a mouse model of keratinocyte-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation. J. Clin. Invest., 2006, 116(8), 2094-2104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI27179] [PMID: 16886058]
[27]
Teunissen, M.B.M.; Bos, J.D.; Koomen, C.W.; de Waal Malefyt, R.; Wierenga, E.A. Interleukin-17 and interferon-γ synergize in the enhancement of proinflammatory cytokine production by human keratinocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol., 1998, 111(4), 645-649.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00347.x] [PMID: 9764847]
[28]
Nickoloff, B.J. The cytokine network in psoriasis. Arch. Dermatol., 1991, 127(6), 871-884.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1991.01680050115015] [PMID: 2036036]
[29]
Sugiyama, H.; Gyulai, R.; Toichi, E.; Garaczi, E.; Shimada, S.; Stevens, S.R.; McCormick, T.S.; Cooper, K.D. Dysfunctional blood and target tissue CD4+CD25high regulatory T cells in psoriasis: Mechanism underlying unrestrained pathogenic effector T cell proliferation. J. Immunol., 2005, 174(1), 164-173.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.174.1.164] [PMID: 15611238]
[30]
Wang, H.; Peters, T.; Sindrilaru, A.; Kess, D.; Oreshkova, T.; Yu, X.Z.; Seier, A.M.; Schreiber, H.; Wlaschek, M.; Blakytny, R.; Röhrbein, J.; Schulz, G.; Weiss, J.M.; Scharffetter-Kochanek, K. TGF-β–dependent suppressive function of Tregs requires wild-type levels of CD18 in a mouse model of psoriasis. J. Clin. Invest., 2008, 118(7), 2629-2639.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI34916] [PMID: 18521187]
[31]
Zhang, L.; Gallo, R.L. Antimicrobial peptides. Curr. Biol., 2016, 26(1), R14-R19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.017] [PMID: 26766224]
[32]
Morizane, S.; Yamasaki, K.; Mühleisen, B.; Kotol, P.F.; Murakami, M.; Aoyama, Y.; Iwatsuki, K.; Hata, T.; Gallo, R.L. Cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide LL-37 in psoriasis enables keratinocyte reactivity against TLR9 ligands. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2012, 132(1), 135-143.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2011.259] [PMID: 21850017]
[33]
Matsuzaki, G.; Umemura, M. Interleukin-17 family cytokines in protective immunity against infections: Role of hematopoietic cell-derived and non-hematopoietic cell-derived interleukin-17s. Microbiol. Immunol., 2018, 62(1), 1-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1348-0421.12560] [PMID: 29205464]
[34]
Lee, J.S.; Tato, C.M.; Joyce-Shaikh, B.; Gulen, M.F.; Cayatte, C.; Chen, Y.; Blumenschein, W.M.; Judo, M.; Ayanoglu, G.; McClanahan, T.K.; Li, X.; Cua, D.J. Interleukin-23-independent IL-17 production regulates intestinal epithelial permeability. Immunity, 2015, 43(4), 727-738.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2015.09.003] [PMID: 26431948]
[35]
Lomholt, G. Psoriasis: Prevalence, spontaneous course and genetics. A census study of skin diseases on the Faroe Islands. Doctoral dissertation, Ph. D Thesis. Copenhagen.,
[36]
Farber, E.M.; Nall, M.L.; Watson, W. Natural history of psoriasis in 61 twin pairs. Arch. Dermatol., 1974, 109(2), 207-211.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1974.01630020023005] [PMID: 4814926]
[37]
Capon, F.; Burden, A.D.; Trembath, R.C.; Barker, J.N. Psoriasis and other complex trait dermatoses: From Loci to functional pathways. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2012, 132(3), 915-922.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2011.395] [PMID: 22158561]
[38]
Veal, C.D.; Capon, F.; Allen, M.H.; Heath, E.K.; Evans, J.C.; Jones, A.; Patel, S.; Burden, D.; Tillman, D.; Barker, J.N.W.N.; Trembath, R.C. Family-based analysis using a dense single-nucleotide polymorphism-based map defines genetic variation at PSORS1, the major psoriasis-susceptibility locus. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 2002, 71(3), 554-564.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/342289] [PMID: 12148091]
[39]
Tiilikainen, A.; Lassus, A.; Karvonen, J.; Vartiainen, P.; Julin, M. Psoriasis and HLA-Cw6. Br. J. Dermatol., 1980, 102(2), 179-184.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1980.tb05690.x] [PMID: 7387872]
[40]
Hundhausen, C.; Bertoni, A.; Mak, R.K.; Botti, E.; Di Meglio, P.; Clop, A.; Laggner, U.; Chimenti, S.; Hayday, A.C.; Barker, J.N.; Trembath, R.C.; Capon, F.; Nestle, F.O. Allele-specific cytokine responses at the HLA-C locus: Implications for psoriasis. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2012, 132(3), 635-641.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2011.378] [PMID: 22113476]
[41]
Capon, F.; Bijlmakers, M.J.; Wolf, N.; Quaranta, M.; Huffmeier, U.; Allen, M.; Timms, K.; Abkevich, V.; Gutin, A.; Smith, R.; Warren, R.B.; Young, H.S.; Worthington, J.; Burden, A.D.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Hayday, A.; Nestle, F.O.; Reis, A.; Lanchbury, J.; Barker, J.N.; Trembath, R.C. Identification of ZNF313 / RNF114 as a novel psoriasis susceptibility gene. Hum. Mol. Genet., 2008, 17(13), 1938-1945.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddn091] [PMID: 18364390]
[42]
de Cid, R.; Riveira-Munoz, E.; Zeeuwen, P.L.J.M.; Robarge, J.; Liao, W.; Dannhauser, E.N.; Giardina, E.; Stuart, P.E.; Nair, R.; Helms, C.; Escaramís, G.; Ballana, E.; Martín-Ezquerra, G.; Heijer, M.; Kamsteeg, M.; Joosten, I.; Eichler, E.E.; Lázaro, C.; Pujol, R.M.; Armengol, L.; Abecasis, G.; Elder, J.T.; Novelli, G.; Armour, J.A.L.; Kwok, P.Y.; Bowcock, A.; Schalkwijk, J.; Estivill, X. Deletion of the late cornified envelope LCE3B and LCE3C genes as a susceptibility factor for psoriasis. Nat. Genet., 2009, 41(2), 211-215.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng.313] [PMID: 19169253]
[43]
Tsoi, L.C.; Spain, S.L.; Knight, J.; Ellinghaus, E.; Stuart, P.E.; Capon, F.; Ding, J.; Li, Y.; Tejasvi, T.; Gudjonsson, J.E.; Kang, H.M.; Allen, M.H.; McManus, R.; Novelli, G.; Samuelsson, L.; Schalkwijk, J.; Ståhle, M.; Burden, A.D.; Smith, C.H.; Cork, M.J.; Estivill, X.; Bowcock, A.M.; Krueger, G.G.; Weger, W.; Worthington, J.; Tazi-Ahnini, R.; Nestle, F.O.; Hayday, A.; Hoffmann, P.; Winkelmann, J.; Wijmenga, C.; Langford, C.; Edkins, S.; Andrews, R.; Blackburn, H.; Strange, A.; Band, G.; Pearson, R.D.; Vukcevic, D.; Spencer, C.C.A.; Deloukas, P.; Mrowietz, U.; Schreiber, S.; Weidinger, S.; Koks, S.; Kingo, K.; Esko, T.; Metspalu, A.; Lim, H.W.; Voorhees, J.J.; Weichenthal, M.; Wichmann, H.E.; Chandran, V.; Rosen, C.F.; Rahman, P.; Gladman, D.D.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Reis, A.; Kere, J.; Nair, R.P.; Franke, A.; Barker, J.N.W.N.; Abecasis, G.R.; Elder, J.T.; Trembath, R.C. Identification of 15 new psoriasis susceptibility loci highlights the role of innate immunity. Nat. Genet., 2012, 44(12), 1341-1348.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng.2467] [PMID: 23143594]
[44]
Jordan, C.T.; Cao, L.; Roberson, E.D.O.; Pierson, K.C.; Yang, C.F.; Joyce, C.E.; Ryan, C.; Duan, S.; Helms, C.A.; Liu, Y.; Chen, Y.; McBride, A.A.; Hwu, W.L.; Wu, J.Y.; Chen, Y.T.; Menter, A.; Goldbach-Mansky, R.; Lowes, M.A.; Bowcock, A.M. PSORS2 is due to mutations in CARD14. Am. J. Hum. Genet., 2012, 90(5), 784-795.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.03.012] [PMID: 22521418]
[45]
Di Cesare, A.; Di Meglio, P.; Nestle, F.O. The IL-23/Th17 axis in the immunopathogenesis of psoriasis. J. Invest. Dermatol., 2009, 129(6), 1339-1350.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.59] [PMID: 19322214]
[46]
Hunt, K.A.; Mistry, V.; Bockett, N.A.; Ahmad, T.; Ban, M.; Barker, J.N.; Barrett, J.C.; Blackburn, H.; Brand, O.; Burren, O.; Capon, F.; Compston, A.; Gough, S.C.L.; Jostins, L.; Kong, Y.; Lee, J.C.; Lek, M.; MacArthur, D.G.; Mansfield, J.C.; Mathew, C.G.; Mein, C.A.; Mirza, M.; Nutland, S.; Onengut-Gumuscu, S.; Papouli, E.; Parkes, M.; Rich, S.S.; Sawcer, S.; Satsangi, J.; Simmonds, M.J.; Trembath, R.C.; Walker, N.M.; Wozniak, E.; Todd, J.A.; Simpson, M.A.; Plagnol, V.; van Heel, D.A. Negligible impact of rare autoimmune-locus coding-region variants on missing heritability. Nature, 2013, 498(7453), 232-235.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12170] [PMID: 23698362]
[47]
Kim, G.K.; Del Rosso, J.Q. Drug-provoked psoriasis: Is it drug induced or drug aggravated?: Understanding pathophysiology and clinical relevance. J. Clin. Aesthet. Dermatol., 2010, 3(1), 32-38.
[PMID: 20725536]
[48]
Yao, Y.; Richman, L.; Morehouse, C.; de los Reyes, M.; Higgs, B.W.; Boutrin, A.; White, B.; Coyle, A.; Krueger, J.; Kiener, P.A.; Jallal, B. Type I interferon: Potential therapeutic target for psoriasis? PLoS One, 2008, 3(7), e2737.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002737] [PMID: 18648529]
[49]
van der Fits, L.; Mourits, S.; Voerman, J.S.A.; Kant, M.; Boon, L.; Laman, J.D.; Cornelissen, F.; Mus, A.M.; Florencia, E.; Prens, E.P.; Lubberts, E. Imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice is mediated via the IL-23/IL-17 axis. J. Immunol., 2009, 182(9), 5836-5845.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0802999] [PMID: 19380832]
[50]
Prinz, J.C. Psoriasis vulgaris - a sterile antibacterial skin reaction mediated by cross-reactive T cells? An immunological view of the pathophysiology of psoriasis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol., 2001, 26(4), 326-332.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2230.2001.00831.x] [PMID: 11422184]
[51]
Jin, Y.; Yang, S.; Zhang, F.; Kong, Y.; Xiao, F.; Hou, Y.; Fan, X.; Zhang, X. Combined effects of HLA-Cw6 and cigarette smoking in psoriasis vulgaris: A hospital-based case-control study in China. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol., 2009, 23(2), 132-137.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2008.02951.x] [PMID: 18702622]
[52]
Özden, M.G.; Tekin, N.S.; Gürer, M.A.; Akdemir, D.; Doğramacı, Ç.; Utaş, S.; Akman, A.; Evans, S.E.; Bahadır, S.; Öztürkcan, S.; İkizoğlu, G.; Şendur, N.; Köse, O.; Bek, Y.; Yaylı, S.; Cantürk, T.; Turanl, A.Y. Environmental risk factors in pediatric psoriasis: A multicenter case-control study. Pediatr. Dermatol., 2011, 28(3), 306-312.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1470.2011.01408.x] [PMID: 21615473]
[53]
Takeshita, J.; Grewal, S.; Langan, S.M.; Mehta, N.N.; Ogdie, A.; Van Voorhees, A.S.; Gelfand, J.M. Psoriasis and comorbid diseases. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 2017, 76(3), 377-390.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2016.07.064] [PMID: 28212759]
[54]
Dhana, A.; Yen, H.; Yen, H.; Cho, E. All-cause and cause-specific mortality in psoriasis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 2019, 80(5), 1332-1343.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2018.12.037] [PMID: 30590074]
[55]
Olivier, C. The risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidality a. in patients with psoriasis: A population-based cohort study. Arch. Dermatol., 2010, 146(8), 891-895.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archdermatol.2010.186] [PMID: 20713823]
[56]
Mrowietz, U.; Kragballe, K.; Reich, K.; Spuls, P.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Nast, A.; Franke, J.; Antoniou, C.; Arenberger, P.; Balieva, F.; Bylaite, M.; Correia, O.; Daudén, E.; Gisondi, P.; Iversen, L.; Kemény, L.; Lahfa, M.; Nijsten, T.; Rantanen, T.; Reich, A.; Rosenbach, T.; Segaert, S.; Smith, C.; Talme, T.; Volc-Platzer, B.; Yawalkar, N. Definition of treatment goals for moderate to severe psoriasis: A European consensus. Arch. Dermatol. Res., 2011, 303(1), 1-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00403-010-1080-1] [PMID: 20857129]
[57]
McMillin, B.D.; Maddern, B.R.; Graham, W.R. A role for tonsillectomy in the treatment of psoriasis? Ear Nose Throat J., 1999, 78(3), 155-158.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014556139907800308] [PMID: 10188351]
[58]
Thorleifsdottir, R.H.; Sigurdardottir, S.L.; Sigurgeirsson, B.; Olafsson, J.H.; Petersen, H.; Sigurdsson, M.I.; Gudjonsson, J.E.; Johnston, A.; Valdimarsson, H. HLA-Cw6 homozygosity in plaque psoriasis is associated with streptococcal throat infections and pronounced improvement after tonsillectomy: A prospective case series. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 2016, 75(5), 889-896.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2016.06.061] [PMID: 27520394]
[59]
Revicki, D.; Willian, M.K.; Saurat, J.H.; Papp, K.A.; Ortonne, J.P.; Sexton, C.; Camez, A. Impact of adalimumab treatment on health-related quality of life and other patient-reported outcomes: Results from a 16-week randomized controlled trial in patients with moderate to severe plaque psoriasis. Br. J. Dermatol., 2008, 158(3), 549-557.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.08236.x] [PMID: 18047521]
[60]
Saurat, J.H.; Stingl, G.; Dubertret, L.; Papp, K.; Langley, R.G.; Ortonne, J.P.; Unnebrink, K.; Kaul, M.; Camez, A. Efficacy and safety results from the randomized controlled comparative study of adalimumab vs. methotrexate vs. placebo in patients with psoriasis (CHAMPION). Br. J. Dermatol., 2008, 158(3), 558-566.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.08315.x] [PMID: 18047523]
[61]
Lindqvist, T.; Salah, L.; Gillstedt, M.; Wennberg, A.; Osmancevic, A. Methotrexate management in psoriasis: Are we following the guidelines? Acta Derm. Venereol., 2018, 98(4), 449-451.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2340/00015555-2857] [PMID: 29199349]
[62]
Harper, R.A. Specificity in the synergism between retinoic acid and EGF on the growth of adult human skin fibroblasts. Exp. Cell Res., 1988, 178(2), 254-263.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4827(88)90396-5] [PMID: 3262523]
[63]
Lee, J.H.; Youn, J.I.; Kim, T.Y.; Choi, J.H.; Park, C.J.; Choe, Y.B.; Song, H.J.; Kim, N.I.; Kim, K.J.; Lee, J.H.; Yoo, H.J. A multicenter, randomized, open-label pilot trial assessing the efficacy and safety of etanercept 50 mg twice weekly followed by etanercept 25 mg twice weekly, the combination of etanercept 25 mg twice weekly and acitretin, and acitretin alone in patients with moderate to severe psoriasis. BMC Dermatol., 2016, 16(1), 11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12895-016-0048-z] [PMID: 27455955]
[64]
Oehrl, S.; Olaru, F.; Kunze, A.; Maas, M.; Pezer, S.; Schmitz, M.; Schäkel, K. Controlling the pro-inflammatory function of 6-sulfo LacNAc (slan) dendritic cells with dimethylfumarate. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2017, 87(3), 278-284.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2017.06.016] [PMID: 28732748]
[65]
Anstey, A.V. Fumaric acid esters in the treatment of psoriasis - commentary on ‘Treatment of severe, recalcitrant, chronic plaque psoriasis with fumaric acid esters: A prospective study’ by Wain et al. Br. J. Dermatol., 2010, 162(2), 237-238.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09624.x] [PMID: 20374246]
[66]
Fallah Arani, S.; Neumann, H.; Hop, W.C.J.; Thio, H.B. Fumarates vs. methotrexate in moderate to severe chronic plaque psoriasis: A multicentre prospective randomized controlled clinical trial. Br. J. Dermatol., 2011, 164(4), 855-861.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.10195.x] [PMID: 21175564]
[67]
Oehrl, S.; Prakash, H.; Ebling, A.; Trenkler, N.; Wölbing, P.; Kunze, A.; Döbel, T.; Schmitz, M.; Enk, A.; Schäkel, K. The phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor apremilast inhibits Th1 but promotes Th17 responses induced by 6-sulfo LacNAc (slan) dendritic cells. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2017, 87(2), 110-115.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2017.04.005] [PMID: 28499587]
[68]
Bissonnette, R.; Haydey, R.; Rosoph, L.A.; Lynde, C.W.; Bukhalo, M.; Fowler, J.F.; Delorme, I.; Gagné-Henley, A.; Gooderham, M.; Poulin, Y.; Barber, K.; Jenkin, P.; Landells, I.; Pariser, D.M. Apremilast for the treatment of moderate‐to‐severe palmoplantar psoriasis: Results from a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, randomized study. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol., 2018, 32(3), 403-410.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jdv.14647] [PMID: 29055155]
[69]
Haider, A.S.; Lowes, M.A.; Gardner, H.; Bandaru, R.; Darabi, K.; Chamian, F.; Kikuchi, T.; Gilleaudeau, P.; Whalen, M.S.; Cardinale, I.; Novitskaya, I.; Krueger, J.G. Novel insight into the agonistic mechanism of alefacept in vivo: Differentially expressed genes may serve as biomarkers of response in psoriasis patients. J. Immunol., 2007, 178(11), 7442-7449.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.178.11.7442] [PMID: 17513795]
[70]
Jullien, D.; Prinz, J.C.; Langley, R.G.B.; Caro, I.; Dummer, W.; Joshi, A.; Dedrick, R.; Natta, P. T-cell modulation for the treatment of chronic plaque psoriasis with efalizumab (Raptiva): Mechanisms of action. Dermatology, 2004, 208(4), 297-306.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000077660] [PMID: 15178911]
[71]
Lebwohl, M.; Tyring, S.K.; Hamilton, T.K.; Toth, D.; Glazer, S.; Tawfik, N.H.; Walicke, P.; Dummer, W.; Wang, X.; Garovoy, M.R.; Pariser, D. A novel targeted T-cell modulator, efalizumab, for plaque psoriasis. N. Engl. J. Med., 2003, 349(21), 2004-2013.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030002] [PMID: 14627785]
[72]
Leonardi, C.L.; Powers, J.L.; Matheson, R.T.; Goffe, B.S.; Zitnik, R.; Wang, A.; Gottlieb, A.B. Etanercept as monotherapy in patients with psoriasis. N. Engl. J. Med., 2003, 349(21), 2014-2022.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030409] [PMID: 14627786]
[73]
Papp, K.A.; Poulin, Y.; Bissonnette, R.; Bourcier, M.; Toth, D.; Rosoph, L.; Poulin-Costello, M.; Setterfield, M.; Syrotuik, J. Assessment of the long-term safety and effectiveness of etanercept for the treatment of psoriasis in an adult population. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 2012, 66(2), e33-e45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2010.07.026] [PMID: 20850895]
[74]
Zaba, L.C.; Suárez-Fariñas, M.; Fuentes-Duculan, J.; Nograles, K.E.; Guttman-Yassky, E.; Cardinale, I.; Lowes, M.A.; Krueger, J.G. Effective treatment of psoriasis with etanercept is linked to suppression of IL-17 signaling, not immediate response TNF genes. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 2009, 124(5), 1022-1030.e395, 395.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.046] [PMID: 19895991]
[75]
Papp, K.A.; Langley, R.G.; Lebwohl, M.; Krueger, G.G.; Szapary, P.; Yeilding, N.; Guzzo, C.; Hsu, M.C.; Wang, Y.; Li, S.; Dooley, L.T.; Reich, K. Efficacy and safety of ustekinumab, a human interleukin-12/23 monoclonal antibody, in patients with psoriasis: 52-week results from a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (PHOENIX 2). Lancet, 2008, 371(9625), 1675-1684.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60726-6] [PMID: 18486740]
[76]
Papp, K.A.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Gordon, K.; Lebwohl, M.; Szapary, P.O.; Wasfi, Y.; Chan, D.; Hsu, M.C.; Ho, V.; Ghislain, P.D.; Strober, B.; Reich, K. Long-term safety of ustekinumab in patients with moderate-to-severe psoriasis: Final results from 5 years of follow-up. Br. J. Dermatol., 2013, 168(4), 844-854.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12214] [PMID: 23301632]
[77]
Tausend, W.; Downing, C.; Tyring, S. Systematic review of interleukin-12, interleukin-17, and interleukin-23 pathway inhibitors for the treatment of moderate-to-severe chronic plaque psoriasis: Ustekinumab, briakinumab, tildrakizumab, guselkumab, secukinumab, ixekizumab, and brodalumab. J. Cutan. Med. Surg., 2014, 18(3), 156-169.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2310/7750.2013.13125] [PMID: 24800703]
[78]
Rich, P.; Sigurgeirsson, B.; Thaci, D.P.; Ortonne, J.P.; Paul, C.; Schopf, R.E.; Morita, A.; Roseau, K.; Harfst, E.; Guettner, A.; Machacek, M.; Papavassilis, C. Secukinumab induction and maintenance therapy in moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase II regimen-finding study. Br. J. Dermatol., 2012, 168(2), no.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12070] [PMID: 23362969]
[79]
Sathish, J.G.; Sethu, S.; Bielsky, M.C.; de Haan, L.; French, N.S.; Govindappa, K.; Green, J.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Holgate, S.; Jones, D.; Kimber, I.; Moggs, J.; Naisbitt, D.J.; Pirmohamed, M.; Reichmann, G.; Sims, J.; Subramanyam, M.; Todd, M.D.; Van Der Laan, J.W.; Weaver, R.J.; Park, B.K. Challenges and approaches for the development of safer immunomodulatory biologics. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov., 2013, 12(4), 306-324.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrd3974] [PMID: 23535934]
[80]
Liu, Y.; Wu, E.Q.; Bensimon, A.G.; Fan, C.P.S.; Bao, Y.; Ganguli, A.; Yang, M.; Cifaldi, M.; Mulani, P. Cost per responder associated with biologic therapies for Crohn’s disease, psoriasis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Adv. Ther., 2012, 29(7), 620-634.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12325-012-0035-7] [PMID: 22843208]
[81]
Cowden, A; Van Voorhees, AS Introduction: History of psoriasis and psoriasis therapy. Treat. Psorias., 2008, 1-9.
[82]
Girdlestone, T. Observations on the effects of Dr. Fowler’s mineral solution in lepra and other diseases. Med. Phys. J., 1806, 15(86), 297-301.
[PMID: 30491249]
[83]
Farber, E.M. History of the treatment of psoriasis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 1992, 27(4), 640-645.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0190-9622(92)70232-5] [PMID: 1401327]
[84]
Squire, B. On the treatment of psoriasis by an ointment of chrysophanic acid; Churchill, 1878.
[85]
Hjorth, N.; Norgaard, M. Tars. Psoriasis; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1991, pp. 473-479.
[86]
Greaves, M.W.; Weinstein, G.D. Treatment of Psoriasis. N. Engl. J. Med., 1995, 332(9), 581-589.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199503023320907] [PMID: 7838193]
[87]
Ingram, J.T. The approach to psoriasis. BMJ, 1953, 2(4836), 591-594.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.4836.591] [PMID: 13082048]
[88]
Lundberg, I.E.; Grundtman, C.; Larsson, E.; Klareskog, L. Corticosteroids-from an idea to clinical use. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol., 2004, 18(1), 7-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2003.10.003] [PMID: 15123034]
[89]
Hench, P.S.; Kendall, E.C.; Slocumb, C.H.; Polley, H.F. Effects of cortisone acetate and pituitary ACTH on rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever and certain other conditions. Arch. Intern. Med., 1950, 85(4), 545-666.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1950.00230100002001] [PMID: 15411248]
[90]
Sulzberger, M.B.; Witten, V.H. The effect of topically applied compound F in selected dermatoses. J. Invest. Dermatol., 1952, 19(2), 101-102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.1952.72] [PMID: 14955641]
[91]
Gubner, R. Effect of aminopterin on epithelial tissues. Arch. Dermatol., 1951, 64(6), 688-699.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1951.01570120023004] [PMID: 14867911]
[92]
Roenigk, H.H., Jr; Auerbach, R.; Maibach, H.I.; Weinstein, G.D. Methotrexate in psoriasis: Revised guidelines. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 1988, 19(1), 145-156.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(88)80237-8] [PMID: 3042816]
[93]
Benedetto, AV The psoralens. An historical perspective.,
[94]
Melski, J.W.; Tanenbaum, L.; Parrish, J.A.; Fitzpatrick, T.B.; Bleich, H.L. Oral methoxsalen photochemotherapy for the treatment of psoriasis: A cooperative clinical trial. J. Invest. Dermatol., 1977, 68(6), 328-335.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep12496022] [PMID: 864273]
[95]
Fischer, T.; Alsins, J. Treatment of psoriasis with trioxsalen baths and dysprosium lamps. Acta Derm. Venereol., 1976, 56(5), 383-390.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2340/0001555556383390] [PMID: 78625]
[96]
Green, C.; Ferguson, J.; Lakshmipathi, T.; Johnson, B.E. 311 nm UVB phototherapy—an effective treatment for psoriasis. Br. J. Dermatol., 1988, 119(6), 691-696.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1988.tb03489.x] [PMID: 3203066]
[97]
Picot, E.; Meunier, L.; Picot-Debeze, M.C.; Peyron, J.L.; Meynadier, J. Treatment of psoriasis with a 311-nm UVB lamp. Br. J. Dermatol., 1992, 127(5), 509-512.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1992.tb14850.x] [PMID: 1467291]
[98]
Stüttgen, G. zur lokalbenhandlung von keratosen mit vitamin-A-saure. Dermatology, 1962, 124(2), 65-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000255058]
[99]
Ward, A.; Brogden, R.N.; Heel, R.C.; Speight, T.M.; Avery, G.S. Isotretinoin. Drugs, 1984, 28(1), 6-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-198428010-00002] [PMID: 6235105]
[100]
Weinstein, G.D. Safety, efficacy and duration of therapeutic effect of tazarotene used in the treatment of plaque psoriasis. Br. J. Dermatol., 1996, 135(s49), 32-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1996.tb15664.x] [PMID: 9035703]
[101]
Morimoto, S.; Kumahara, Y. A patient with psoriasis cured by 1 alpha-hydroxyvitamin D3. Med. J. Osaka Univ., 1985, 35(3-4), 51-54.
[PMID: 4069059]
[102]
Smith, E.L.; Walworth, N.C.; Holick, M.F. Effect of 1 α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the morphologic and biochemical differentiation of cultured human epidermal keratinocytes grown in serum-free conditions. J. Invest. Dermatol., 1986, 86(6), 709-714.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep12276343] [PMID: 2423618]
[103]
Kragballe, K.; Wildfang, I.L. Calcipotriol (MC 903), a novel vitamin D3 analogue stimulates terminal differentiation and inhibits proliferation of cultured human keratinocytes. Arch. Dermatol. Res., 1990, 282(3), 164-167.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00372616] [PMID: 2164359]
[104]
Borel, J.F.; Feurer, C.; Gubler, H.U.; Stähelin, H. Biological effects of cyclosporin A: A new antilymphocytic agent. Agents Actions, 1994, 43(3-4), 179-186.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01986686] [PMID: 7725970]
[105]
Mueller, W.; Herrmann, B. Cyclosporin a for psoriasis. N. Engl. J. Med., 1979, 301(10), 555.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197909063011015] [PMID: 460314]
[106]
Griffiths, C.E.M.; Dubertret, L.; Ellis, C.N.; Finlay, A.Y.; Finzi, A.F.; Ho, V.C.; Johnston, A.; Katsambas, A.; Lison, A-E.; Naeyaert, J.M.; Nakagawa, H.; Paul, C.; Vanaclocha, F. Ciclosporin in psoriasis clinical practice: An international consensus statement. Br. J. Dermatol., 2004, 150(s67), 11-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0366-077X.2004.05949.x] [PMID: 15115441]
[107]
National Psoriasis Foundation. Available from:https://www.Psoriasis.Org/drug-
[108]
Nandikol, S. Prescription auditing of corticosteriods in dermatology department at a tertiary care hospital: A retrospective study.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy