Abstract
Pulses have redeemed the interest in terms of a sustainable and healthy diet due to their high protein content. Furthermore, the vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals they contain also make them more valuable nutritionally. A sustainable diet should improve public health and food security and has a low environmental footprint. Pulses have been considered one of the emerging plant food proteins. Although they have beneficial components such as vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and antioxidants, many drawbacks limit their use to consumers and the food industry. One of the drawbacks is their incomplete proteins due to the lack of sulfur-containing amino acids in their protein profile. Furthermore, the protein digestibility of pulses is low due to the antinutritional compounds they contain. The other drawback of pulses is their beany flavor and bitter taste that limits the acceptability of consumers. From the consumer's point of view, the other disadvantage is the laborious and timeconsuming preparation period.
This article provides a concise overview of the current state of knowledge on pulses as sustainable protein sources, underlining the gaps that limit their extensive application in the food industry. Based on the available scientific facts on pulses, finding an efficient method for removing beany flavor and overall sensorial acceptability and antinutritional factors, thus increasing protein digestibility is crucial. The most promising option to increase pulse protein digestibility seems to combine conventional and novel technologies that can modulate digestibility by different mechanisms, such as the removal of antinutritional factors, protein denaturation, and the design of the food matrix.
[1]
Fasolin LH, Pereira RN, Pinheiro AC, et al. Emergent food proteins – Towards sustainability, health and innovation. Food Res Int 2019; 125: 108586.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108586] [PMID: 31554037]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108586] [PMID: 31554037]
[2]
Schweiggert WU, Eisner P, Bader MS, Osen R. Food proteins from plants and fungi. Curr Opin Food Sci 2020; 32: 156-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.08.003]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.08.003]
[3]
Lonnie M, Johnstone AM. The public health rationale for promoting plant protein as an important part of a sustainable and healthy diet. Nutr Bull 2020; 45(3): 281-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nbu.12453]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nbu.12453]
[4]
Bresciani A, Marti A. Using pulses in baked products: Lights, shadows, and potential solutions. Foods 2019; 8(10): 451.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods8100451] [PMID: 31581614]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods8100451] [PMID: 31581614]
[5]
Sozer N, Holopainen MU, Poutanen K. Traditional and new food uses of pulses. Cereal Chem 2017; 94(1): 66-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-04-16-0082-FI]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-04-16-0082-FI]
[6]
De Pasquale I, Pontonio E, Gobbetti M, Rizzello CG. Nutritional and functional effects of the lactic acid bacteria fermentation on gelatinized legume flours. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 316: 108426.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108426] [PMID: 31722270]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108426] [PMID: 31722270]
[7]
Romano A, Gallo V, Ferranti P, Masi P. Lentil flour: nutritional and technological properties, in vitro digestibility and perspectives for use in the food industry. Curr Opin Food Sci 2021; 40: 157-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2021.04.003]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2021.04.003]
[8]
Szczebyło A, Halicka E, Jackowska M, Rejman K. Analysis of the global pulses market and programs encouraging consumption of this food. Probl World Agric 2019; 19(3): 85-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.22630/PRS.2019.19.3.49]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.22630/PRS.2019.19.3.49]
[9]
Huebbe P, Rimbach G. Historical reflection of food processing and the role of legumes as part of a healthy balance diet. Foods 2020; 9(8): 1056.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods9081056] [PMID: 32759873]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods9081056] [PMID: 32759873]
[10]
About the international year of pulses, nutritious seeds for a sustainable future. Rome, Italy, FAO Available from:
http://www.fao.org/pulses-2016/about/en/
[11]
Bessada SMF, Barreira JCM, Oliveira MBPP. Pulses and food security: Dietary protein, digestibility, bioactive and functional properties. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019; 93: 53-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.08.022]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.08.022]
[12]
Singh B, Singh JP, Shevkani K, Singh N, Kaur A. Bioactive constituents in pulses and their health benefits. J Food Sci Technol 2017; 54(4): 858-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-016-2391-9] [PMID: 28303037]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-016-2391-9] [PMID: 28303037]
[13]
Shevkani K, Singh N, Chen Y, Kaur A, Yu L. Pulse proteins: secondary structure, functionality and applications. J Food Sci Technol 2019; 56(6): 2787-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03723-8] [PMID: 31205335]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03723-8] [PMID: 31205335]
[14]
Torcello GA, Dupont D, Jardin J, et al. Human gastrointestinal conditions affect in vitro digestibility of peanut and bread proteins. Food Funct 2020; 11(8): 6921-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/D0FO01451F] [PMID: 32691795]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/D0FO01451F] [PMID: 32691795]
[15]
Carbonaro M, Maselli P, Nucara A. Structural aspects of legume proteins and nutraceutical properties. Food Res Int 2015; 76: 19-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.11.007]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.11.007]
[16]
Bassett A, Hooper S, Cichy K. Genetic variability of cooking time in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) related to seed coat thickness and the cotyledon cell wall. Food Res Int 2021; 141: 109886.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109886] [PMID: 33641942]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109886] [PMID: 33641942]
[17]
Junejo SA, Ding L, Fu X, Xiong W, Zhang B, Huang Q. Pea cell wall integrity controls the starch and protein digestion properties in the infogest in vitro simulation. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 182: 1200-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.014] [PMID: 33984387]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.014] [PMID: 33984387]
[18]
Bhattarai RR, Dhital S, Wu P, Chen XD, Gidley MJ. Digestion of isolated legume cells in a stomach-duodenum model: Three mechanisms limit starch and protein hydrolysis. Food Funct 2017; 8(7): 2573-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C7FO00086C] [PMID: 28682366]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C7FO00086C] [PMID: 28682366]
[19]
Shiga TM, Cordenunsi BR, Lajolo FM. Effect of cooking on non-starch polysaccharides of hard-to-cook beans. Carbohydr Polym 2009; 76(1): 100-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.09.035]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.09.035]
[20]
Rovalino CAM, Fogliano V, Capuano E. The effect of cell wall encapsulation on macronutrients digestion: A case study in kidney beans. Food Chem 2019; 286: 557-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.02.057] [PMID: 30827647]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.02.057] [PMID: 30827647]
[21]
Rovalino CAM. Plant tissue matrix: In-vitro studies to understand its role in starch digestion and fermentation. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 2020.
[22]
Akillioglu HG, Karakaya S. Changes in total phenols, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activities of common beans and pinto beans after soaking, cooking, and in vitro digestion process. Food Sci Biotechnol 2010; 19(3): 633-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10068-010-0089-8]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10068-010-0089-8]
[23]
Sá AGA, Moreno YMF, Carciofi BAM. Food processing for the improvement of plant proteins digestibility. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 60(20): 3367-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.1688249] [PMID: 31760758]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019.1688249] [PMID: 31760758]
[24]
Li Y, He D, Li B, et al. Engineering polyphenols with biological functions via polyphenol-protein interactions as additives for functional foods. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021; 110: 470-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.009]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.009]
[25]
Jöbstl E, O’Connell J, Fairclough JPA, Williamson MP. Molecular model for astringency produced by polyphenol/protein interactions. Biomacromolecules 2004; 5(3): 942-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm0345110] [PMID: 15132685]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bm0345110] [PMID: 15132685]
[26]
Nicolás GM, Jiménez MC, Perucini AM, Camacho DBH, Jiménez AAR, Dávila OG. Phenolic Compounds in Legumes: Composition.In: Processing and Gut Health. London: IntechOpen 2021.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98202]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98202]
[27]
Shi L, Arntfield SD, Nickerson M. Changes in levels of phytic acid, lectins and oxalates during soaking and cooking of Canadian pulses. Food Res Int 2018; 107: 660-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.02.056] [PMID: 29580532]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.02.056] [PMID: 29580532]
[28]
Byanju B, Hojilla EMP, Lamsal BP. Fermentation performance and nutritional assessment of physically processed lentil and green pea flour. J Sci Food Agric 2021; 101(14): 5792-806.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11229] [PMID: 33792043]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11229] [PMID: 33792043]
[29]
Khrisanapant P, Leong SY, Kebede B, Oey I. Effects of hydrothermal processing duration on the texture starch and protein in vitro digestibility of cpwpeas chickpeas and kidney beans. Foods 2021; 10(6): 1415.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods10061415] [PMID: 34207291]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods10061415] [PMID: 34207291]
[30]
Byars JA, Singh M, Kenar JA, Felker FC, Winkler MJK. Effect of particle size and processing method on starch and protein digestibility of navy bean flour. Cereal Chem 2021; 98(4): 829-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cche.10422]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cche.10422]
[31]
Uppal V, Bains K. Effect of germination periods and hydrothermal treatments on in vitro protein and starch digestibility of germinated legumes. J Food Sci Technol 2012; 49(2): 184-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-011-0273-8] [PMID: 23572840]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-011-0273-8] [PMID: 23572840]
[32]
Habiba RA. Changes in anti-nutrients, protein solubility, digestibility, and HCl-extractability of ash and phosphorus in vegetable peas as affected by cooking methods. Food Chem 2002; 77(2): 187-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00335-1]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00335-1]
[33]
Rathod RP, Annapure US. Effect of extrusion process on antinutritional factors and protein and starch digestibility of lentil splits. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2016; 66: 114-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.10.028]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.10.028]
[34]
Sánchez VOA, Ribéreau S, Mondor M, Cuevas REO, Arcand Y, Hernández ÁAJ. Impact of processing on the in vitro protein quality, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant potential of 10 selected pulses. Legume Sci 2021; 3(2): 233674556.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/leg3.88]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/leg3.88]
[35]
Han IH, Swanson BG, Baik BK. Protein digestibility of selected legumes treated with ultrasound and high hydrostatic pressure during soaking. Cereal Chem 2007; 84(5): 518-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-84-5-0518]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-84-5-0518]
[36]
Yin SW, Tang CH, Wen QB, Yang XQ, Li L. Functional properties and in vitro trypsin digestibility of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) protein isolate: Effect of high-pressure treatment. Food Chem 2008; 110(4): 938-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.090] [PMID: 26047283]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.090] [PMID: 26047283]
[37]
Lee H, Ha MJ, Shahbaz HM, Kim JU, Jang H, Park J. High hydrostatic pressure treatment for manufacturing of red bean powder: A comparison with the thermal treatment. J Food Eng 2018; 238: 141-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2018.06.016]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2018.06.016]
[38]
Gharibzahedi SMT, Smith B. Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the quality and functionality of protein isolates, concentrates, and hydrolysates derived from pulse legumes: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021; 107: 466-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.11.016]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.11.016]
[39]
Zha F, Rao J, Chen B. Modification of pulse proteins for improved functionality and flavor profile: A comprehensive review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20(3): 3036-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12736] [PMID: 33798275]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12736] [PMID: 33798275]
[40]
Roland WSU, Pouvreau L, Curran J, van de Velde F, de Kok PMT. Flavor aspects of pulse ingredients. Cereal Chem 2017; 94(1): 58-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-06-16-0161-FI]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-06-16-0161-FI]
[41]
Mohammed I, Ahmed AR, Senge B. Dough rheology and bread quality of wheat–chickpea flour blends. Ind Crops Prod 2012; 36(1): 196-202.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.09.006]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.09.006]
[42]
Aider M, Sirois-Gosselin M, Boye JI. Pea, lentil, and chickpea protein application in bread making. J Food Res 2012; 1(4): 160-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v1n4p160]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v1n4p160]
[43]
Asif M, Rooney LW, Ali R, Riaz MN. Application and opportunities of pulses in food system: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2013; 53(11): 1168-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.574804] [PMID: 24007421]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.574804] [PMID: 24007421]
[44]
Thongram S, Tanwar B, Chauhan A, Kumar V. Physicochemical and organoleptic properties of cookies incorporated with legume flours. Cogent Food Agric 2016; 2(1): 1172389.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2016.1172389]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2016.1172389]
[45]
Gómez M, Oliete B, Rosell CM, Pando V, Fernández E. Studies on cake quality made of wheat–chickpea flour blends. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2008; 41(9): 1701-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2007.11.024]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2007.11.024]
[46]
Lam ACY, Can Karaca A, Tyler RT, Nickerson MT. Pea protein isolates: Structure, extraction, and functionality. Food Rev Int 2018; 34(2): 126-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2016.1242135]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2016.1242135]
[47]
Loveday SM. Food proteins: Technological nutritional and sustainability attributes of traditional and emerging proteins. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2019; 10: 311-39.
[48]
Alekseeva E, Kolchina V. Amino acid composition of beef obtained fromthe specialized meat cattle. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 2019; 341(1): 012136.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/341/1/012136]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/341/1/012136]
