Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2211-7385
ISSN (Online): 2211-7393

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
General Review Article

COVID-19: Underpinning Research for Detection, Therapeutics, and Vaccines Development

Author(s): Alaa A.A. Aljabali*, Hamid A. Bakshi, Saurabh Satija, Meenu Metha, Parteek Prasher, Raed M. Ennab, Dinesh K. Chellappan, Gaurav Gupta, Poonam Negi, Rohit Goyal, Ashish Sharma, Vijay Mishra, Harish Dureja, Kamal Dua and Murtaza M. Tambuwala

Volume 8, Issue 4, 2020

Page: [323 - 353] Pages: 31

DOI: 10.2174/2211738508999200817163335

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: The newly emerged coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, first reported in December 2019, has infected about five and a half million people globally and resulted in nearly 9063264 deaths until the 24th of June 2020. Nevertheless, the highly contagious virus has instigated an unimaginably rapid response from scientific and medical communities.

Objectives: Pioneering research on molecular mechanisms underlying the viral transmission, molecular pathogenicity, and potential treatments will be highlighted in this review. The development of antiviral drugs specific to SARS-CoV-2 is a complicated and tedious process. To accelerate scientific discoveries and advancement, researchers are consolidating available data from associated coronaviruses into a single pipeline, which can be readily made available to vaccine developers.

Methods: In order to find studies evaluating the COVID-19 virus epidemiology, repurposed drugs and potential vaccines, web searches and bibliographical bases have been used with keywords that matches the content of this review.

Results: The published results of SARS-CoV-2 structures and interactomics have been used to identify potential therapeutic candidates. We illustrate recent publications on SARS-CoV-2, concerning its molecular, epidemiological, and clinical characteristics, and focus on innovative diagnostics technologies in the production pipeline. This objective of this review is to enhance the comprehension of the unique characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and strengthen future control measures.

Lay Summary: An innovative analysis is evaluating the nature of the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim is to increase knowledge of possible viral detection methods, which highlights several new technology limitations and advantages. We have assessed some drugs currently for patients (Lopinavir, Ritonavir, Anakinra and Interferon beta 1a), as the feasibility of COVID-19 specific antivirals is not presently known. The study explores the race toward vaccine development and highlights some significant trials and candidates in various clinical phases. This research addresses critical knowledge gaps by identifying repurposed drugs currently under clinical trials. Findings will be fed back rapidly to the researchers interested in COVID 19 and support the evidence and potential of possible therapeutics and small molecules with their mode of action.

Keywords: COVID-19, epidemiology, pandemics, SARS-CoV-2, therapeutics repurposing, therapeutics, viruses.

« Previous
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Kapikian AZ, James HD, Kelly SJ, et al. Isolation from man of “avian infectious bronchitis virus like” viruses (coronaviruses) similar to 229E virus, with some epidemiological observations. J Infect Diseases 1969; 119(3): 282-90.
[2]
McIntosh K, Kapikian AZ, Hardison KA, Hartley JW, Chanock RM. Antigenic relationships among the coronaviruses of man and between human and animal coronaviruses. J Immunol 1969; 102(5): 1109-18.
[3]
Briguglio I, Piras S, Corona P, Carta A. Inhibition of rna helicases of ssRNA(+) virus belonging to flaviviridae, coronaviridae and picornaviridae families. Int J Med Chem 2011; 2011 213135
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/213135] [PMID: 27516903]
[4]
Phan MVT, Ngo Tri T, Hong Anh P, Baker S, Kellam P, Cotten M. Identification and characterization of Coronaviridae genomes from Vietnamese bats and rats based on conserved protein domains. Virus Evol 2018; 4(2) vey035
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ve/vey035] [PMID: 30568804]
[5]
Cavanagh D. Nidovirales: a new order comprising Coronaviridae and Arteriviridae. Arch Virol 1997; 142(3): 629-33.
[PMID: 9349308]
[6]
Lvov DK, Alkhovsky SV, Kolobukhina LV, Burtseva EI. [Etiology of epidemic outbreaks COVID-19 on Wuhan, Hubei province, Chinese People Republic associated with 2019-nCoV (Nidovirales, Coronaviridae, Coronavirinae, Betacoronavirus, Subgenus Sarbecovirus): lessons of SARS-CoV outbreak]. Vopr Virusol 2020; 65(1): 6-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.36233/0507-4088-2020-65-1-6-15] [PMID: 32496715]
[7]
O’Keefe BR, Giomarelli B, Barnard DL, et al. Broad spectrum in vitro activity and in vivo efficacy of the antiviral protein griffithsin against emerging viruses of the family Coronaviridae. J Virol 2010; 84(5): 2511-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02322-09] [PMID: 20032190]
[8]
Coutard B, Valle C, de Lamballerie X, Canard B, Seidah NG, Decroly E. The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade. Antiviral Res 2020; 176 104742
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104742] [PMID: 32057769]
[9]
Cavanagh D. Coronavirus IBV. Coronavirus IBV: structural characterization of the spike protein. J Gen Virol 1983; 64(12): 2577-83.
[10]
Sturman LS, Holmes KV. The molecular biology of coronaviruses Advances in virus research. Netherlands: Elsevier 1983; pp. 35-112.
[11]
Coronaviridae study group of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses. The species severe acute respiratory syndrome related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2. Nat Microbiol 2020; 5(4): 536-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z] [PMID: 32123347]
[12]
Siddell SG, Walker PJ, Lefkowitz EJ, et al. Additional changes to taxonomy ratified in a special vote by the international committee on taxonomy of viruses. Arch Virol 2019; 164(3): 943-6.
[13]
King AM, Lefkowitz E, Adams MJ, Carstens EB. Virus taxonomy: ninth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Netherlands: Elsevier 2011; p. 1338.
[14]
Chen YH, Peng JS. [Treatment strategy for gastrointestinal tumor under the outbreak of novel coronavirus pneumonia in China]. Zhonghua Wei Chang Wai Ke Za Zhi 2020; 23(2): I-IV.
[PMID: 32074786]
[15]
Comas-Garcia M. Packaging of genomic rna in positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: a complex story. Viruses 2019; 11(3) E253
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11030253] [PMID: 30871184]
[16]
Belouzard S, Millet J K, Licitra B N, Whittaker G R J V. Mechanisms of coronavirus cell entry mediated by the viral spike protein 2012; 4(6): 1011-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v4061011]
[17]
Ylikoski J, Markkanen M, Mäkitie A. Pathophysiology of the COVID-19 entry to the CNS through the nose. Acta Otolaryngol 2020; 1-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00016489.2020.1773533] [PMID: 32597276]
[18]
Srinivasan S, Cui H, Gao Z, et al. Structural genomics of SARS-CoV-2 indicates evolutionary conserved functional regions of viral proteins. Viruses 2020; 12(4) E360
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v12040360] [PMID: 32218151]
[19]
Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020; 579(7798): 270-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7] [PMID: 32015507]
[20]
Yin C. Genotyping coronavirus SARS-CoV-2: methods and implications. Genomics 2020; 112(5): 3588-96.
[21]
Huang WH, Teng LC, Yeh TK, et al. 2019 Novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in Taiwan: reports of two cases from Wuhan, China. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2019; 53(3): 481-4.
[PMID: 32111449]
[22]
Wu A, Peng Y, Huang B, et al. Genome composition and divergence of the novel coronavirus (2019-ncov) originating in China. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 27(3): 325-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2020.02.001] [PMID: 32035028]
[23]
Ruan YJ, Wei CL, Ee AL, et al. Comparative full length genome sequence analysis of 14 SARS coronavirus isolates and common mutations associated with putative origins of infection. Lancet 2003; 361(9371): 1779-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13414-9] [PMID: 12781537]
[24]
Sah R, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Jha R, et al. Complete genome sequence of a 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) strain isolated in Nepal microbiol. Resour Announc 2020; 9(11): 1-3.
[25]
Satarker S, Nampoothiri M. Structural Proteins in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2. Arch Med Res 2020. Epub ahead of print
[26]
Schaecher SR, Pekosz A. SARS coronavirus accessory gene expression and function. In: Lal SK, ed. Molecular Biology of the SARS-Coronavirus. Heidelberg: Springer 2010; pp. 153-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03683-5_10]
[27]
Khailany RA, Safdar M, Ozaslan MJ. Genomic characterization of a novel SARS-CoV-2. Gene Rep. [Epub ahead of print]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.genrep.2020.100682]
[28]
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding 2020; 395(10224): 565-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8]
[29]
Romano M, Ruggiero A, Squeglia F, Maga G, Berisio R. A structural view of SARS-CoV-2 RNA replication machinery: rna synthesis, proofreading and final capping. Cells 2020; 9(5): 1267.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells9051267] [PMID: 32443810]
[30]
Li T, Zhang Y, Fu L, et al. siRNA targeting the leader sequence of SARS-CoV inhibits virus replication. Gene Ther 2005; 12(9): 751-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.gt.3302479] [PMID: 15772689]
[31]
Anand K, Ziebuhr J, Wadhwani P, Mesters JR, Hilgenfeld R. Coronavirus main proteinase (3CLpro) structure: basis for design of anti-SARS drugs. Science 2003; 300(5626): 1763-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1085658] [PMID: 12746549]
[32]
Kim Y, Lovell S, Tiew KC, et al. Broad spectrum antivirals against 3C or 3C-like proteases of picornaviruses, noroviruses, and coronaviruses. J Virol 2012; 86(21): 11754-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01348-12] [PMID: 22915796]
[33]
te Velthuis AJ, van den Worm SH, Snijder EJ. The SARS-coronavirus nsp7+nsp8 complex is a unique multimeric RNA polymerase capable of both de novo initiation and primer extension. Nucleic Acids Res 2012; 40(4): 1737-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkr893] [PMID: 22039154]
[34]
Marra MA, Jones SJ, Astell CR, et al. The Genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus. Science 2003; 300(5624): 1399-404.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1085953] [PMID: 12730501]
[35]
Wong SK, Li W, Moore MJ, Choe H, Farzan M. A 193-amino acid fragment of the SARS coronavirus S protein efficiently binds angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. J Biol Chem 2004; 279(5): 3197-201.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.C300520200] [PMID: 14670965]
[36]
De Haan CA, Kuo L, Masters PS, Vennema H, Rottier PJ. Coronavirus particle assembly: primary structure requirements of the membrane protein. J Virol 1998; 72(8): 6838-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.72.8.6838-6850.1998]
[37]
Escors D, Ortego J, Enjuanes L. The membrane M protein of the transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus binds to the internal core through the carboxyterminus. In: Perlman S, Holmes KV, eds. The Nidoviruses. Heidelberg: Springer 2001; pp. 589-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1325-4_87]
[38]
Narayanan K, Makino S. Characterization of nucleocapsid-M protein interaction in murine coronavirus.In: Perlman S, Holmes KV, eds. The Nidoviruses. Heidelberg: Springer 2001; pp. 577-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1325-4_85]
[39]
DeDiego ML, Álvarez E, Almazán F, et al. A severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus that lacks the E gene is attenuated in vitro and in vivo. J Virol 2007; 81(4): 1701-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01467-06]
[40]
Kuo L, Masters PS. The small envelope protein E is not essential for murine coronavirus replication. J Virol 2003; 77(8): 4597-608.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.77.8.4597-4608.2003]
[41]
Stertz S, Reichelt M, Spiegel M, et al. The intracellular sites of early replication and budding of SARS-coronavirus 2007; 361(2): 304-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2006.11.027]
[42]
He R, Leeson A, Ballantine M, et al. Characterization of protein-protein interactions between the nucleocapsid protein and membrane protein of the SARS coronavirus. Virus Res 2004; 105(2): 121-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2004.05.002] [PMID: 15351485]
[43]
Liu J, Sun Y, Qi J, et al. The membrane protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus acts as a dominant immunogen revealed by a clustering region of novel functionally and structurally defined cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitopes. J Infect Dis 2010; 202(8): 1171-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/656315] [PMID: 20831383]
[44]
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(13): 1199-207.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316] [PMID: 31995857]
[45]
CDC RVB. Division of viral diseases Real-time RTPCR panel for detection 2019-novel coronavirus 2019. Available at: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/uscdcrt-pcr-panel-for-detectioninstructions.pdf?sfvrsn=3aa07934_2
[46]
Chang D, Lin M, Wei L, et al. Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of novel coronavirus infections involving 13 patients outside Wuhan, China JAMA 2020 Mar 17 323(11): 1092-3.
[47]
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control COVID-19 Situation Update Worldwide. 2020.Available at: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/ geographical-distribution-2019-ncov-cases2020
[48]
Jin Y, Yang H, Ji W, et al. Virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and control of COVID-19. Viruses 2020; 12(4) E372
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v12040372] [PMID: 32230900]
[49]
Organization WH. WHO timeline-COVID-19 2020.Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---COVID-19
[50]
Fehr AR, Channappanavar R, Perlman S. Middle East respiratory syndrome: emergence of a pathogenic human coronavirus. Annu Rev Med 2017; 68: 387-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-051215-031152] [PMID: 27576010]
[51]
Dyer C, Dyer O. WHO to probe claims that Dutch scientists restricted access to novel coronavirus. BMJ 2013; 346: f3464.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f3464] [PMID: 23714279]
[52]
Amawi H, Abu Deiab GA. A Aljabali AA, Dua K, Tambuwala MM. COVID-19 pandemic: an overview of epidemilogy, pathogenesis, diagnostics and potential vacciences and therapeutics. Ther Deliv 2020; 11(5): 245-68.
[53]
Liu T, Hu J, Kang M, et al. Transmission dynamics of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) 2020.Available at: https://www.cebm.net/evidence-synthesis/transmission-dynamics-of-covid-19/
[54]
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 497-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5] [PMID: 31986264]
[55]
Gralinski LE, Menachery VD. Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV. Viruses 2020; 12(2): 135.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v12020135] [PMID: 31991541]
[56]
Schouten LR, van Kaam AH, Kohse F, et al. MARS consortium. Age-dependent differences in pulmonary host responses in ARDS: a prospective observational cohort study. Ann Intensive Care 2019; 9(1): 55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13613-019-0529-4] [PMID: 31089908]
[57]
Lu X, Zhang L, Du H, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection in children 2020; 382(17): 1663-5.
[58]
Xu Y, Li X, Zhu B, et al. Characteristics of pediatric SARS-CoV-2 infection and potential evidence for persistent fecal viral shedding 2020; 26(4): 502-.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0817-4]
[59]
Boettler T, Newsome PN, Mondelli MU, et al. Care of patients with liver disease during the COVID-19 pandemic: EASL-ESCMID position paper. JHEP Reports 2020; p. 100113.
[60]
Liu Y, Gayle AA, Wilder-Smith A, Rocklöv J. The reproductive number of COVID-19 is higher compared to SARS coronavirus. J Travel Med 2020; 27(2) : taaa021.
[61]
BGI. Bgi develops real-time fluorescent rt-pcr kit for detecting the 2019 novel coronavirus 2020.Available at: https://www.bgi.com/global/company/news/bgi-develops-real-time-dna-based-kit-for-detecting-the-2019-novel-coronavirus/2020
[62]
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 507-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7] [PMID: 32007143]
[63]
Fan J, Liu X, Pan W, Douglas MW, Bao S. Epidemiology of coronavirus disease in Gansu province, China, 2020. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 26(6): 1257-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2606.200251] [PMID: 32168465]
[64]
Kim JY, Choe PG, Oh Y, et al. The first case of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia imported into Korea from Wuhan, China: implication for infection prevention and Control Measures. J Korean Med Sci 2020; 35(5) e61
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e61] [PMID: 32030925]
[65]
Nishiura H, Jung SM, Linton NM, et al. The extent of transmission of novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, 2020. J Clin Med 2020; 9(2) E330
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm9020330] [PMID: 31991628]
[66]
Jayaweera M, Perera H, Gunawardana B, Manatunge J. Transmission of COVID-19 virus by droplets and aerosols: a critical review on the unresolved dichotomy. Enviro Res 2020; p. 109819.
[67]
Galbadage T, Peterson BM, Gunasekera RS. Does COVID-19 spread through droplets alone? Front Public Health 2020; 8: 163.
[68]
Zhang H, Kang Z, Gong H, et al. The digestive system is a potential route of 2019-nCov infection: a bioinformatics analysis based on single-cell transcriptomes.. bioRxiv 2020. Available at: https://rxivist. org/papers/72513
[69]
Ng SC, Tilg H. COVID-19 and the gastrointestinal tract: more than meets the eye. Gut 2020; 69(6): 973-4.
[70]
Zheng J. SARS-CoV-2: an emerging coronavirus that causes a global threat. Int J Biol Sci 2020; 16(10): 1678.
[71]
Cheng VCC, Wong SC, To KKW, Ho PL, Yuen KY. Preparedness and proactive infection control measures against the emerging novel coronavirus in China. J Hosp Infect 2020; 104(3): 254-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.010] [PMID: 31962139]
[72]
Li Z, Yi Y, Luo X, et al. Development and clinical application of a rapid IgM-IgG combined antibody test for SARS-CoV-2 infection diagnosis. J Med Virol 2020; 92: 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25727] [PMID: 32104917]
[73]
Wang D, Ju XL, Xie F, et al. [Clinical analysis of 31 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children from six provinces (autonomous region) of northern China]. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 2020; 58(4): 269-74.
[PMID: 32118389]
[74]
Yi Y, Lagniton PN, Ye S, Li E, Xu RH. COVID-19: what has been learned and to be learned about the novel coronavirus disease. Int J Biol Sci 2020; 16(10): 1753.
[75]
Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A, Angeli F. The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Eur J Intern Med 2020; 76: 14-20.
[76]
Jin Y-H, Cai L, Cheng Z-S, et al. for the Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University novel coronavirus management and research team, evidence-based medicine chapter of China international exchange and promotive association for medical and health care (CPAM). A rapid advice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infected pneumonia (standard version). Mil Med Res 2020; 7(1): 4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-0233-6] [PMID: 32029004]
[77]
Mackenzie JS, Smith DW. COVID-19: a novel zoonotic disease caused by a coronavirus from China: what we know and what we don’t. Microbiol Aust 2020; 41(1): 45-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/MA20013] [PMID: 32226946]
[78]
Verity R, Okell LC, Dorigatti I, et al. Estimates of the severity of coronavirus disease 2019: a model-based analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(6): 669-77.
[79]
Liu Y, Yan L-M, Wan L, et al. Viral dynamics in mild and severe cases of COVID-19. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(6): 656-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30232-2] [PMID: 32199493]
[80]
Wu R, Wang L, Kuo HC, et al. Reviews, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): an overview of viral structure and host response. Curr Pharmacol Rep 2020; 14(4): 408-12.
[81]
Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients of novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis 2020; ciaa344. [Epub ahead of print]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa344] [PMID: 32221519]
[82]
Chang D, Lin M, Wei L, et al. Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of novel coronavirus infections involving 13 patients outside Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; 323(11): 1092-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1623] [PMID: 32031568]
[83]
Alavi-Moghaddam M. A Novel coronavirus outbreak from Wuhan city in China, rapid need for emergency departments preparedness and response; a letter to editor. Arch Acad Emerg Med 2020; 8(1) e12
[PMID: 32185368]
[84]
Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, et al. China medical treatment expert group for Covid-19. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(18): 1708-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032] [PMID: 32109013]
[85]
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study 2020; 395(10223): 507-13.
[86]
Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 2020; 323(13): 1239-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2648] [PMID: 32091533]
[87]
Chen J, Qi T, Liu L, et al. Clinical progression of patients with COVID-19 in Shanghai, China. J Infect 2020; 80(5): e1-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.004]
[88]
Guan W-j, Ni Z-y, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China 2020; 382(18): 1708-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032]
[89]
Fan C, Liu L, Guo W, et al. Prediction of epidemic spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus driven by spring festival transportation in China: a population-based study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(5) E1679
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051679] [PMID: 32143519]
[90]
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). . Interim clinical guidance for management of patients with confirmed coronavirus disease (COVID-19) 2020.Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-guidance-management-patients. html
[91]
Tang A, Tong ZD, Wang HL, et al. Detection of novel coronavirus by RT-PCR in stool specimen from asymptomatic child, China. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 26(6): 1337-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2606.200301] [PMID: 32150527]
[92]
Chen W, Lan Y, Yuan X, et al. Detectable 2019-nCoV viral RNA in blood is a strong indicator for the further clinical severity. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 9(1): 469-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2020.1732837] [PMID: 32102625]
[93]
Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in different types of clinical specimens. JAMA 2020; 323(18): 1843-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.3786] [PMID: 32159775]
[94]
Organization WH. Report of the WHO-China joint mission on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Geneva 2020.
[95]
Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(12): 1177-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2001737] [PMID: 32074444]
[96]
To KK-W, Tsang OT-Y, Leung W-S, et al. Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS-CoV-2: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(5): 565-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30196-1] [PMID: 32213337]
[97]
Wölfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature 2020; 581(7809): 465-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2196-x] [PMID: 32235945]
[98]
Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020; 395(10229): 1054-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30566-3] [PMID: 32171076]
[99]
Kakodkar P, Kaka N, Baig MJC. A comprehensive literature review on the clinical presentation, and management of the pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Cureus 2020; 12(4) e7560
[100]
Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, et al. Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(10): 970-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2001468] [PMID: 32003551]
[101]
Kupferschmidt K. Study claiming new coronavirus can be transmitted by people without symptoms was flawed. Science 2020; 3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb1524]
[102]
Yu P, Zhu J, Zhang Z, Han Y. A familial cluster of infection associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating possible person-to-person transmission during the incubation period. J Infect Dis 2020; 221(11): 1757-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa077] [PMID: 32067043]
[103]
Bai Y, Yao L, Wei T, et al. Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19. JAMA 2020; 323(14): 1406-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2565] [PMID: 32083643]
[104]
Hu Z, Song C, Xu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China. Sci China Life Sci 2020; 63(5): 706-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11427-020-1661-4] [PMID: 32146694]
[105]
Qian G, Yang N, Ma AHY, et al. A COVID-19 transmission within a family cluster by presymptomatic infectors in China. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 71(15): 861-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa316] [PMID: 32201889]
[106]
Wei WE. Presymptomatic transmission of SARS-CoV-2-Singapore January 23-March 16, 2020. MMWR morbidity and mortality weekly Report 2020; 69(14): 411-5.
[107]
Mendel J. COVID-19 pandemic and radiology: facts, resources, and suggestions for near-term protocols. J Global Radiol 2020; 6(1): 2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7191/jgr.2020.1100]
[108]
Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus- infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Jama 2020; 17; 323(11): 1061-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585]
[109]
McMichael TM, Clark S, Pogosjans S. COVID-19 in a long-term care facility-King County, Washington February 27-March 9, 2020. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2020; 69(12): 339-42.
[110]
Cheng MP, Papenburg J, Desjardins M, et al. Diagnostic Testing for severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2: a narrative review. Ann Intern Med 2020; 172(11): 726-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M20-1301] [PMID: 32282894]
[111]
Sheridan C. Fast, portable tests come online to curb coronavirus pandemic. Nat Biotechnol 2020; 38(5): 515-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/d41587-020-00010-2] [PMID: 32203294]
[112]
Lee VJ, Chiew CJ, Khong WX. Interrupting transmission of COVID-19: lessons from containment efforts in Singapore. J Travel Med 2020; 27(3) : taaa039.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa039] [PMID: 32167146]
[113]
Loeffelholz MJ, Tang YW. infections, Laboratory diagnosis of emerging human coronavirus infectionsthe state of the art 2020; 9(1): 747-56.
[114]
Corman VM, Landt O, Kaiser M, et al. Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR. Euro Surveill 2020; 25(3) : 2000045.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.3.2000045] [PMID: 31992387]
[115]
Wang Y, Liu Y, Liu L, Wang X, Luo N, Ling L. Clinical outcome of 55 asymptomatic cases at the time of hospital admission infected with SARS-Coronavirus-2 in Shenzhen, China. J Infect Dis 2020; 221(11): 1770-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa119]
[116]
Pan F, Ye T, Sun P, et al. Time course of lung changes on chest CT during recovery from 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pneumonia. Radiology 2020; 295(3): 715-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200370]
[117]
Shi H, Han X, Jiang N, et al. Radiological findings from 81 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(4): 425-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30086-4] [PMID: 32105637]
[118]
Li Y, Xia L. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): role of chest CT in diagnosis and management. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2020; 214(6): 1280-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/AJR.20.22954] [PMID: 32130038]
[119]
Kanne JP, Chest CT, Chest CT. Findings in 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections from Wuhan, China: key points for the radiologist. Radiology 2020; 295(1): 16-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200241] [PMID: 32017662]
[120]
Huang P, Liu T, Huang L, et al. Use of chest CT in combination with negative RT-PCR assay for the 2019 novel coronavirus but high clinical suspicion. Radiology 2020; 295(1): 22-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200330] [PMID: 32049600]
[121]
MedRxiv. Diagnosis of acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection by detection of nucleocapsid protein 2020.Available at: https://www.medrxiv. org/content/10.1101/2020.03.07.20032524v2
[122]
Dutta N K, Mazumdar K, Lee B-H, et al. Search for potential target site of nucleocapsid gene for the design of an epitope-based SARS DNA vaccine 2008; 118(1): 65-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.imlet.2008.03.003]
[123]
McIntosh K. Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review.Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology/Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung Heidelberg. Springer 2020.
[124]
Giacomelli A, Pezzati L, Conti F, et al. Self-reported olfactory and taste disorders in SARS-CoV-2 patients: a cross-sectional study. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 71: 889-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa330] [PMID: 32215618]
[125]
Brendish NJ, Poole S, Naidu VV, et al. Real-world diagnostic accuracy of a host response point-of-care test in hospitalised patients with suspected COVID-19 2020. [Epub ahead of print]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3582747]
[126]
Mizumoto K, Kagaya K, Zarebski A, Chowell G. Estimating the asymptomatic proportion of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases on board the Diamond Princess cruise ship, Yokohama, Japan, 2020. Euro Surveill 2020; 25(10) : 2000180.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.10.2000180] [PMID: 32183930]
[127]
Radiology ACR. ACR recommendations for the use of chest radiography and computed tomography (CT) for suspected COVID-19 infection 2020.
[128]
Xie X, Zhong Z, Zhao W, Zheng C, Wang F, Liu J. Chest CT for typical 2019-nCoV pneumonia: relationship to negative RT-PCR testing. Radiology 2020; 262(2) 200343
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200343] [PMID: 32049601]
[129]
Li D, Zhang J, Li J. Primer design for quantitative real-time PCR for the emerging Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 2020; 10(16): 7150.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/thno.47649]
[130]
MedRxiv. Viral Kinetics and Antibody Responses in Patients with COVID-19 2020.Available at: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.24.20042382v1?rss=1
[131]
Simpson S, Kay FU, Abbara S, et al. Radiological society of North America expert consensus statement on reporting chest CT findings related to covid-19. Endorsed by the society of thoracic radiology, the American college of radiology, and rsna. Radiology Cardiothoracic Imaging 2020; 2(2) e200152
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/ryct.2020200152] [PMID: 32324653]
[132]
Zhao W, Zhong Z, Xie X, Yu Q, Liu J. Relation between chest CT findings and clinical conditions of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pneumonia: a multicenter study. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2020; 214(5): 1072-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/AJR.20.22976] [PMID: 32125873]
[133]
U.S food and drug. EUA authorized serology test performance 2020.Available at: https://www.fda. gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-emergency-use-authorizations-medical-devices/eua-authorized-serology-test-performance
[134]
Amawi H, Abu Deiab G, Aljabali A. COVID-19 pandemic: an overview of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics and potential vaccines and therapeutics. Ther Deliv 2020; 11(4): 245-68.
[135]
Chu DKW, Pan Y, Cheng SMS, et al. Molecular Diagnosis of a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing an outbreak of pneumonia. Clin Chem 2020; 66(4): 549-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/hvaa029] [PMID: 32031583]
[136]
Vashist SK. In Vitro Diagnostic assays for COVID-19: recent advances and emerging trends. Diagnostics 2020; 10(4): 202.
[137]
Abbott. Test to Detect Novel Coronavirus in as Little as Five Minutes 2020.Available at: https://www. abbott.com/corpnewsroom/product-and-innovation/detect-covid-19-in-as-little-as-5-minutes.html#:~:text=Abbott%20has%20received%20emergency%20use, negative%20results%20in%2013%20minutes.
[138]
Cassaniti I, Novazzi F, Giardina F, et al. Performance of VivaDiag COVID-19 IgM/IgG rapid test is inadequate for diagnosis of COVID-19 in acute patients referring to emergency room department. J Med Virol 2020. Epub ahead of print
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25800] [PMID: 32227490]
[139]
Abbott. Abbott launches molecular point-of-care test to detect novel coronavirus 2020. Available at: https://abbott.mediaroom.com/2020-03-27-Abbott-Launches-Mole-cular-Point-of-Care-Test-to-Detect-Novel-Coronavirus-in-as-Little-as-Five-Minutes2020
[140]
Zheng YY, Ma YT, Zhang JY, Xie X. COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nat Rev Cardiol 2020; 17(5): 259-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41569-020-0360-5] [PMID: 32139904]
[141]
Alhogbani T. Acute myocarditis associated with novel Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Ann Saudi Med 2016; 36(1): 78-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.2016.78] [PMID: 26922692]
[142]
Fani M, Teimoori A, Ghafari SJ F V. Comparison of the COVID-2019 (SARS-CoV-2) pathogenesis with SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections. Future Virol 2020. Epub ahead of print
[143]
Turner AJ, Hiscox JA, Hooper NM. ACE2: from vasopeptidase to SARS virus receptor. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2004; 25(6): 291-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2004.04.001] [PMID: 15165741]
[144]
Ferrario CM, Jessup J, Chappell MC, et al. Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and angiotensin II receptor blockers on cardiac angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Circulation 2005; 111(20): 2605-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.510461] [PMID: 15897343]
[145]
Karram T, Abbasi A, Keidar S, et al. Effects of spironolactone and eprosartan on cardiac remodeling and angiotensin-converting enzyme isoforms in rats with experimental heart failure. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 289(4): H1351-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.01186.2004] [PMID: 15894569]
[146]
Liu Y, Yang Y, Zhang C, et al. Clinical and biochemical indexes from 2019-nCoV infected patients linked to viral loads and lung injury. Sci China Life Sci 2020; 63(3): 364-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11427-020-1643-8] [PMID: 32048163]
[147]
Santos RAS, Sampaio WO, Alzamora AC, et al. The ACE2/angiotensin-(1-7)/MAS axis of the renin-angiotensin system: focus on angiotensin-(1-7). Physiol Rev 2018; 98(1): 505-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00023.2016] [PMID: 29351514]
[148]
Hofmann H, Geier M, Marzi A, et al. Susceptibility to SARS coronavirus S protein-driven infection correlates with expression of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 and infection can be blocked by soluble receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 319(4): 1216-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.05.114] [PMID: 15194496]
[149]
Chu CM, Poon LL, Cheng VC, et al. Initial viral load and the outcomes of SARS. CMAJ 2004; 171(11): 1349-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.1040398] [PMID: 15557587]
[150]
Wu Q, Zhou L, Sun X, et al. Altered lipid metabolism in recovered sars patients twelve years after infection. Sci Rep 2017; 7(1): 9110.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09536-z] [PMID: 28831119]
[151]
Chan JF-W, Yuan S, Kok K-H, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 514-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9] [PMID: 31986261]
[152]
Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, et al. Treatment of 5 Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19 with Convalescent Plasma. JAMA 2020; 323(16): 1582-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4783] [PMID: 32219428]
[153]
Cheng Y, Wong R, Soo YO, et al. Use of convalescent plasma therapy in SARS patients in Hong Kong. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005; 24(1): 44-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10096-004-1271-9] [PMID: 15616839]
[154]
McCreary EK. Coronavirus disease 2019 treatment: a review of early and emerging options, Open Forum Infectious Diseases. Oxford University Press US 2020; 7(4) : ofaa105.
[155]
Tu Y-F, Chien C-S, Yarmishyn AA, et al. A review of SARS-CoV-2 and the ongoing clinical trials. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21(7): 2657.
[156]
Kadri H, Lambourne O A, Mehellou Y J C. Niclosamide, a drug with many (re) purposes 2018; 13(11): 1088-91.
[157]
Wu R, Wang L, Kuo H-CD, et al. An update on current therapeutic drugs treating COVID-19 2020; 1. [Epub ahead of print]
[158]
Xu J, Shi PY, Li H, Zhou J. Broad spectrum antiviral agent niclosamide and its therapeutic potential. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6(5): 909-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00052]
[159]
Shie JJ, Fang JM, Kuo CJ, et al. Discovery of potent anilide inhibitors against the severe acute respiratory syndrome 3CL protease. J Med Chem 2005; 48(13): 4469-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm050184y] [PMID: 15974598]
[160]
Zhang L, Lin D, Sun X, et al. Crystal structure of SARS-CoV-2 main protease provides a basis for design of improved α-ketoamide inhibitors. Science 2020; 368(6489): 409-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3405] [PMID: 32198291]
[161]
Zhang L, Lin D, Kusov Y, et al. 2020.
[162]
Welliver R, Monto AS, Carewicz O, et al. Oseltamivir post exposure prophylaxis investigator group. Effectiveness of oseltamivir in preventing influenza in household contacts: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001; 285(6): 748-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.6.748] [PMID: 11176912]
[163]
Cosgrove S. Kucers the use of antibiotics: a clinical review of antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, and antiviral drugs. 7th ed. United States: CRC Press 2017; pp. 2531-2.
[164]
de Wilde AH, Jochmans D, Posthuma CC, et al. Screening of an FDA-approved compound library identifies four small-molecule inhibitors of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus replication in cell culture. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58(8): 4875-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.03011-14] [PMID: 24841269]
[165]
Li F, Lu J, Ma X. CYP3A4-mediated lopinavir bioactivation and its inhibition by ritonavir. Drug Metab Dispos 2012; 40(1): 18-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/dmd.111.041400] [PMID: 21953914]
[166]
Yao TT, Qian JD, Zhu WY, Wang Y, Wang G. A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus-A possible reference for coronavirus disease‐19 treatment option. J Med Virol 2020; 92(6): 556-63.
[167]
Falzarano D, de Wit E, Rasmussen AL, et al. Treatment with interferon-α2b and ribavirin improves outcome in MERS-CoV-infected rhesus macaques. Nat Med 2013; 19(10): 1313-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm.3362] [PMID: 24013700]
[168]
Graci JD, Cameron CE. Mechanisms of action of ribavirin against distinct viruses 2006.
[169]
Elfiky AA. Anti-HCV, nucleotide inhibitors, repurposing against COVID-19. Life Sci 2020; 248 117477
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117477] [PMID: 32119961]
[170]
Mulangu S, Dodd LE, Davey RT Jr, et al. PALM writing group; PALM consortium study team. A randomized, controlled trial of ebola virus disease therapeutics. N Engl J Med 2019; 381(24): 2293-303.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1910993] [PMID: 31774950]
[171]
Tchesnokov EP, Feng JY, Porter DP, Götte M. Mechanism of inhibition of ebola virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase by remdesivir. Viruses 2019; 11(4) E326
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11040326] [PMID: 30987343]
[172]
Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun 2020; 11(1): 222.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6] [PMID: 31924756]
[173]
Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Graham RL, et al. Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses. Sci Transl Med 2017; 9(396) eaal3653
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aal3653] [PMID: 28659436]
[174]
de Wit E, Feldmann F, Cronin J, et al. Prophylactic and therapeutic remdesivir (GS-5734) treatment in the rhesus macaque model of MERS-CoV infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2020; 117(12): 6771-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922083117] [PMID: 32054787]
[175]
Gordon CJ, Tchesnokov EP, Feng JY, Porter DP, Götte M. The antiviral compound remdesivir potently inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Biol Chem 2020; 295(15): 4773-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.AC120.013056] [PMID: 32094225]
[176]
Wang Z, Chen X, Lu Y, Chen F, Zhang W. Clinical characteristics and therapeutic procedure for four cases with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia receiving combined Chinese and Western medicine treatment. Biosci Trends 2020; 14(1): 64-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5582/bst.2020.01030] [PMID: 32037389]
[177]
Savarino A, Di Trani L, Donatelli I, Cauda R, Cassone A. New insights into the antiviral effects of chloroquine 2006.
[178]
Yan Y, Zou Z, Sun Y, et al. Anti-malaria drug chloroquine is highly effective in treating avian influenza A H5N1 virus infection in an animal model. Cell Res 2013; 23(2): 300-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/cr.2012.165]
[179]
Rolain JM, Colson P, Raoult D. Recycling of chloroquine and its hydroxyl analogue to face bacterial, fungal and viral infections in the 21st century. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007; 30(4): 297-308.
[180]
Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, et al. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J 2005; 2: 69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69] [PMID: 16115318]
[181]
Jie Z, He H, Xi H, Zhi Z. Multicenter collaboration group of department of science and technology of Guangdong Province and health commission of Guangdong province for chloroquine in the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2020; 10: 1001-0939.
[182]
FDA cautions against use of hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine for COVID-19 outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial due to risk of heart rhythm problems 2020.
[183]
Yao X, Ye F, Zhang M, et al. In vitro antiviral activity and projection of optimized dosing design of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clin Infect Dis 2020; 71(15): 732-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa237] [PMID: 32150618]
[184]
Tett SE, Cutler DJ, Day RO, Brown KF. Bioavailability of hydroxychloroquine tablets in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1989; 27(6): 771-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.1989.tb03439.x] [PMID: 2757893]
[185]
Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, Giarratano A, Einav S. A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19. J Crit Care 2020; 57: 279-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005] [PMID: 32173110]
[186]
Jallouli M, Galicier L, Zahr N, et al. Determinants of hydroxychloroquine blood concentration variations in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol 2015; 67(8): 2176-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.39194] [PMID: 25989906]
[187]
Geleris J, Sun Y, Platt J, et al. Observational study of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(25): 2411-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2012410] [PMID: 32379955]
[188]
Chen L, Liu HG, Liu W, et al. [Analysis of clinical features of 29 patients with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia]. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2020; 43(3): 203-8.
[PMID: 32164089]
[189]
Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today’s diseases? Lancet Infect Dis 2003; 3(11): 722-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00806-5] [PMID: 14592603]
[190]
Colson P, Rolain JM, Raoult D. Chloroquine for the 2019 novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 2020. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 55(3) 105923
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105923]
[191]
Luo L, Jiang J, Wang C, et al. Analysis on herbal medicines utilized for treatment of COVID-19. Acta Pharm Sin B 2020; 10(7): 1192-204.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2020.05.007]
[192]
Kalil A. Treating COVID-19-off-label drug use, compassionate use, and randomized clinical trials during pandemics 2020.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
25
2
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy