Abstract
Classically, Parkinson’s disease (PD) is considered to be a motor system affliction and its diagnosis is based on the presence of a set of cardinal motor signs (e.g. rigidity, bradykinesia, rest tremor and postural reflex disturbance). However, there is considerable evidence showing that non-motor alterations (e.g. anxiety, depression, sleep, gastrointestinal and cognitive functions) precede the classical motor symptoms seen in PD. The management of these nonmotor symptoms remains a challenge. A pattern of regional neurodegeneration that varies considerably depending upon the neuronal population affected may explain the different symptoms. In fact, differential mechanisms of neuronal vulnerability within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) suggests that factors other than location contribute to the susceptibility of these neurons. In this review we discuss how these factors interact to ultimately target the SNpc. Remarkably, this region consists of approximately 95% of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive neurons in both human and rat brains, and consequently this implicates elevated levels of dopamine metabolites, free radicals and other hazard species in these neurons. An understanding of how these factors promote neuronal death may be useful for the development of novel neuroprotective and/or neurorestorative strategies for PD.
Keywords: Tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine, animal models, nigrostriatal pathway, neurodegeneration.
CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets
Title:Motor and Non-Motor Features of Parkinson’s Disease – A Review of Clinical and Experimental Studies
Volume: 11 Issue: 4
Author(s): Marcelo M.S. Lima, Emerson F. Martins, Ana Marcia Delattre, Mariana B. Proenca, Marco A. Mori, Bruno Carabelli and Anete C. Ferraz
Affiliation:
Keywords: Tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine, animal models, nigrostriatal pathway, neurodegeneration.
Abstract: Classically, Parkinson’s disease (PD) is considered to be a motor system affliction and its diagnosis is based on the presence of a set of cardinal motor signs (e.g. rigidity, bradykinesia, rest tremor and postural reflex disturbance). However, there is considerable evidence showing that non-motor alterations (e.g. anxiety, depression, sleep, gastrointestinal and cognitive functions) precede the classical motor symptoms seen in PD. The management of these nonmotor symptoms remains a challenge. A pattern of regional neurodegeneration that varies considerably depending upon the neuronal population affected may explain the different symptoms. In fact, differential mechanisms of neuronal vulnerability within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) suggests that factors other than location contribute to the susceptibility of these neurons. In this review we discuss how these factors interact to ultimately target the SNpc. Remarkably, this region consists of approximately 95% of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive neurons in both human and rat brains, and consequently this implicates elevated levels of dopamine metabolites, free radicals and other hazard species in these neurons. An understanding of how these factors promote neuronal death may be useful for the development of novel neuroprotective and/or neurorestorative strategies for PD.
Export Options
About this article
Cite this article as:
M.S. Lima Marcelo, F. Martins Emerson, Marcia Delattre Ana, B. Proenca Mariana, A. Mori Marco, Carabelli Bruno and C. Ferraz Anete, Motor and Non-Motor Features of Parkinson’s Disease – A Review of Clinical and Experimental Studies, CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets 2012; 11 (4) . https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/187152712800792893
DOI https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/187152712800792893 |
Print ISSN 1871-5273 |
Publisher Name Bentham Science Publisher |
Online ISSN 1996-3181 |
- Author Guidelines
- Graphical Abstracts
- Fabricating and Stating False Information
- Research Misconduct
- Post Publication Discussions and Corrections
- Publishing Ethics and Rectitude
- Increase Visibility of Your Article
- Archiving Policies
- Peer Review Workflow
- Order Your Article Before Print
- Promote Your Article
- Manuscript Transfer Facility
- Editorial Policies
- Allegations from Whistleblowers
Related Articles
-
Is alpha-Synuclein Pathology a Target for Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders?
Current Alzheimer Research Tracking Stem Cells for Cellular Therapy in Stroke
Current Pharmaceutical Design Current Developments for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Current Pharmaceutical Design On Chemical Structures with Potent Antiepileptic/Anticonvulsant Profile
Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry Neprilysin and Amyloid Beta Peptide Degradation
Current Alzheimer Research Phosphorylation-Dephosphorylation Imbalance of Cytoskeletal Associated Proteins in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Recent Patents on CNS Drug Discovery (Discontinued) T-type Calcium Channels in Health and Disease
Current Medicinal Chemistry Chromosome 17 in Fronto Temporal Lobak Degeneration (FTLD): From MAPT to Progranulin and Back
Current Alzheimer Research Role of Brain NUCB2/nesfatin-1 in the Stress-induced Modulation of Gastrointestinal Functions
Current Neuropharmacology Evaluation of Specific Antibody Responses in Patients with Selective IgA Deficiency and Ataxia Telangiectasia
Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders - Drug Targets Mechanistic Aspects of Peptide-Membrane Interactions Determined by Optical, Dielectric and Piezoelectric Techniques: An Overview
Current Protein & Peptide Science 1950 MHz Electromagnetic Fields Ameliorate Aβ Pathology in Alzheimer’s Disease Mice
Current Alzheimer Research The Capsaicin Paradox: Pain Relief by an Algesic Agent
Anti-Inflammatory & Anti-Allergy Agents in Medicinal Chemistry Harnessing the Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cells for IVD Regeneration
Current Stem Cell Research & Therapy Stroke and Neuroinflamation: Role of Sexual Hormones
Current Pharmaceutical Design Delayed Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome Associated with the Use of Low Dose Risperidone in Conjunction with Cholinergic Drugs-the Dangers of Polypharmacy in the Elderly
Current Drug Therapy Self-Assembled Layer based on Carbon Nanotubes Conjugated 1-Aminononenthiol on Gold Substrates
Micro and Nanosystems How Close are We in Achieving Safe, Affordable and Reversible Male Contraceptives?
Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders - Drug Targets Ghrelin: New Insight to Mechanisms and Treatment of Postoperative Gastric Ileus
Current Pharmaceutical Design Strength and Weaknesses of Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers in Alzheimer’s Disease and Possible Detection of Overlaps with Frailty Process
CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets