Psychological and Mental Health Issues During the SARS-CoV-2 Global Pandemic: A Critical Analysis

Tahmeena       Khan; Iqbal       Azad; Alfred    J.    Lawrence

doi:10.2174/2666796701999201117103132

Abstract

Introduction: With the outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan, China in December, 2019, presently over 200 countries have been facing gruesome health effects of the deadly virus, with cases and casualties on the rise. So far, no concrete medicinal drug or vaccine has been developed to check the lethal viral infection, henceforth authorities have emphasized on practicing social distancing and imposed strict lockdowns forcing people to confine in their homes.

Material and Methods: This review was aimed to analyze the effects on mental health and well being during the pandemic. The studies cited in the review were sourced from journals, books and digital media reports. The research papers indexed in databases such as PUBMED, SCOPUS, INDEX COPERNICUS, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS, MEDLINE, EMBASE, EBSCO, DOAJ and THOMSON REUTERS were reviewed and have been included in the review.

Results: The coronavirus mayhem has not only posed a threat to human health, but also jolted different aspects of society, including mental and psychological health. Loss of freedom, boredom, fear and angst are some of the mild psychological effects, whereas a rise in domestic violence and suicidal tendencies is the more serious consequence reported from different parts of the world during the lockdown period.

Conclusion: This article is a comprehensive analysis of the effects on mental and psychological well being during this critical time. Strategic measures to be adopted by individuals and administration to cope up with the situation are also suggested as it should be an immediate priority to address the overall distress caused by the pandemic in public.

Keywords: Coronavirus, psychological, distress, mental, lockdown, suicide, violence, economic.

[1] 
Desforges M, Le Coupanec A, Brison E, Meessen-Pinard M, Talbot PJ. Neuroinvasive and neurotropic human respiratory coronaviruses: Potential neurovirulent agents in humans. Adv Exp Med Biol  2014; 807: 75-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1777-0_6] [PMID: 24619619] 
[2] 
Petherick A. Developing antibody tests for SARS-CoV-2. Lancet  2020; 395(10230): 1101-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30788-1] [PMID: 32247384] 
[3] 
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: Implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet  2020; 395(10224): 565-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8] [PMID: 32007145] 
[4] 
Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature  2020; 579(7798): 270-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7] [PMID: 32015507] 
[5] 
Ong KC, Ng AW, Lee LS, et al. Pulmonary function and exercise capacity in survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Eur Respir J  2004; 24(3): 436-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.04.00007104] [PMID: 15358703] 
[6] 
Hui DS, Wong KT, Ko FW, et al. The 1-year impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome on pulmonary function, exercise capacity, and quality of life in a cohort of survivors. Chest  2005; 128(4): 2247-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.128.4.2247] [PMID: 16236881] 
[7] 
Basu J.  COVID-19 outbreak: Cities with higher air pollution at more risk, say experts. Available from: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/health/covid-19-outbreak-cities-with-higher-air-pollution-at-more-risk-say-experts-70016
[8] 
Künzli N, Perez L, Rapp R. Air quality and healthLausanne, Switzerland: European Respiratory Society, World Health Organization 2010; p. 89.
[9] 
Ma Y, Zhao Y, Liu J, et al. Effects of temperature variation and humidity on the death of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Sci Total Environ  2020; 724: 138226.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138226] [PMID: 32408453] 
[10] 
Indiatvnews.  Air conditioner coronavirus infection covid 19 airborne disease. Available from: Indiatvnews.com/lifestyle/news- air-conditioner-coronavirus-infection-covid-19-airborne-disease
[11] 
Goodman B.  Air conditioning may be spreading COVID. Available from: https://www.webmd.com/lung/news/20200708/air-conditioning-may-be-spreading-covid
[12] 
Khandekar O.  This is how you can safely use air-conditioners during the pandemic. Available from: https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/features/this-is-how-you-can-safely-use-air-conditioners- during-the pandemi11590550732860.html
[13] 
Ourworldindata. Total deaths (per 1M).   Available from: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-covid-deaths-per-million?tab=table
[14] 
Rai Sk.  Should financial markets be closed amid coronavirus-led disruptions? Here’s why or why not. Available from: https://www.financialexpress.com/market/should-financial
[15] 
Business Line.  52% of firms expect job losses due to Covid, finds CII poll. Available from: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/52-of-firms-expect-job-losses-due-to-covid-finds-cii-poll/article31262335.ece
[16] 
Herald D.  Coronavirus outbreak: Job loss, pay cut on cards for millions in India. Available from: https://www.deccanherald.com/business/business-news/coronavirus-outbreak-job-loss-pay- cut-on-cards-for-millions-in-india-821019.html
[17] 
The Economic Times.  Global economy could shrink by almost 1% in 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic: United Nations. 2020. Available from: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/business/global-economy-could-shrink-by-almost-1-in-2020-due-to-covid-19-pandemic-unitednations/articleshow/74943235.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst15
[18] 
UN.  World economic situation and prospects (WESP) report. Available from: https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/document_gem/global-economic-monitoring-unit/world-economic-situation-and-prospects-wesp-report/
[19] 
BloombergQuint.  Covid-19 Impact: World economy to go into recession, except India and China, UN says. Available from: https://www.bloombergquint.com/business/covid-19-impact-world-economy-to-go-into-recession-except-india-and-china-un-says
[20] 
Brooks SK, Webster RK, Smith LE, et al. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet  2020; 395(10227): 912-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8] [PMID: 32112714] 
[21] 
Dong L, Bouey J. Public mental health crisis during COVID-19 pandemic, China. Emerg Infect Dis  2020; 26(7): 1616-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2607.200407] [PMID: 32202993] 
[22] 
Tucci V, Moukaddam N, Meadows J, Shah S, Galwankar SC, Kapur GB. The forgotten plague: Psychiatric manifestations of ebola, zika, and emerging infectious diseases. J Glob Infect Dis  2017; 9(4): 151-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/jgid.jgid_66_17] [PMID: 29302150] 
[23] 
Lunn PD, Belton CA, Levin C, et al. Using behavioural science to help fight the coronavirus: A rapid, narrative review. J Behav Pub Admin  2020; 3(1): 1-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.30636/jbpa.31.147] 
[24] 
Qiu J, Shen B, Zhao M, Wang Z, Xie B, Xu Y. A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: Implications and policy recommendations. Gen Psychiatr  2020; 33(2): e100213.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2020-100213] [PMID: 32215365] 
[25] 
Rossi R, Socci V, Talevi D, et al. COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown 1 measures impact on mental health among the general population in Italy. Front Psychiatry  2020; 11: 790.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00790] [PMID: 32848952] 
[26] 
Wu P, Liu X, Fang Y, et al. Alcohol abuse/dependence symptoms among hospital employees exposed to a SARS outbreak. Alcohol Alcohol  2008; 43(6): 706-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agn073] [PMID: 18790829] 
[27] 
Marjanovic Z, Greenglass ER, Coffey S. The relevance of psychosocial variables and working conditions in predicting nurses’ coping strategies during the SARS crisis: An online questionnaire survey. Int J Nurs Stud  2007; 44(6): 991-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.02.012] [PMID: 16618485] 
[28] 
Lee J. Mental health effects of school closures during COVID-19. Lancet Child Adolesc Health  2020; 4(6): 421.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30109-7] [PMID: 32302537] 
[29] 
Gunnell D, Appleby L, Arensman E, et al. Suicide risk and prevention during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Psychiatry  2020; 7(6): 468-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30171-1] [PMID: 32330430] 
[30] 
Stuckler D, Basu S, Suhrcke M, Coutts A, McKee M. The public health effect of economic crises and alternative policy responses in Europe: An empirical analysis. Lancet  2009; 374(9686): 315-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61124-7] [PMID: 19589588] 
[31] 
Imran N, Zeshan M, Pervaiz Z. Mental health considerations for children & adolescents in COVID-19 Pandemic. Pak J Med Sci  2020; 36(COVID19-S4): S67-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2759] [PMID: 32582317] 
[32] 
The economist.  Domestic violence has increased during coronavirus lockdowns. Available from: https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2020/04/22/domestic-violence-has-increased-during-coronavirus-lockdowns
[33] 
BBC News.  Coronavirus: Lockdown 'increasing' domestic abuse risks. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-52338706
[34] 
Nordt C, Warnke I, Seifritz E, Kawohl W. Modelling suicide and unemployment: A longitudinal analysis covering 63 countries, 2000-11. Lancet Psychiatry  2015; 2(3): 239-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00118-7] [PMID: 26359902] 
[35] 
ILO.  Almost 25 million jobs could be lost worldwide as a result of COVID-19, says ILO. Available from: https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_738742/lang--en/ index.htm
[36] 
Holmes EA, O’Connor RC, Perry VH, et al. Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science. Lancet Psychiatry  2020; 7(6): 547-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30168-1] [PMID: 32304649] 
[37] 
Rivera AS, Akanbi M, O’Dwyer LC, McHugh M. Shift work and long work hours and their association with chronic health conditions: A systematic review of systematic reviews with meta-analyses. PLoS One  2020; 15(4): e0231037.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231037] [PMID: 32240254] 
[38] 
Firdaus G. Mental well-being of migrants in urban center of India: Analyzing the role of social environment. Indian J Psychiatry  2017; 59(2): 164-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_272_15] [PMID: 28827862] 
[39] 
RFI.  Mental illness, suicides rise in India during Covid-19 crisis. Available from: https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20200514-mental-illness-suicides-on-the-rise-in-india-during-covid-19-lockdown
[40] 
Times of India.  Migrant worker has nervous breakdown in Ahmedabad. Available from: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/arti- cleshow/75000134.cms?utmsource=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst
[41] 
Solomonov N, Bress JN, Sirey JA, et al. Engagement in socially and interpersonally rewarding activities as a predictor of outcome in “Engage” behavioral activation therapy for late-life depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry  2019; 27(6): 571-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.12.033] [PMID: 30797650] 
[42] 
Huang L, Zhang X, Zhou M, Nuse B, Tong L. Depressive symptoms and migrant worker wages: Estimation based on a nationally-representative panel dataset. Int J Environ Res Public Health  2019; 16(6): 1009.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061009] [PMID: 30897747] 
[43] 
World Economic Outlook, April 2020. Washington: International monetary fund 2020.
[44] 
McIntyre RS, Lee Y. Preventing suicide in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. World Psychiatry  2020; 19(2): 250-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wps.20767] [PMID: 32394579] 
[45] 
McIntyre RS, Lee Y. Projected increases in suicide in Canada as a consequence of COVID-19. Psychiatry Res  2020; 290: 113104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113104] [PMID: 32460184] 
[46] 
Chang SS, Gunnell D, Sterne JA, Lu TH, Cheng AT. Was the economic crisis 1997-1998 responsible for rising suicide rates in East/Southeast Asia? A time-trend analysis for Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Thailand. Soc Sci Med  2009; 68(7): 1322-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.01.010] [PMID: 19200631] 
[47] 
Reeves A, McKee M, Stuckler D. Economic suicides in the Great Recession in Europe and North America. Br J Psychiatry  2014; 205(3): 246-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.144766] [PMID: 24925987] 
[48] 
Kentikelenis A, Karanikolos M, Papanicolas I, Basu S, McKee M, Stuckler D. Health effects of financial crisis: Omens of a Greek tragedy. Lancet  2011; 378(9801): 1457-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61556-0] [PMID: 21988763] 
[49] 
Google.  Domestic violence in India during lockdown. Available from: https://www.google.com/search?q=domestic+violence+in +india+during+lockdown&oq=Domestic+violence+in+&aqs=chrome.4.69i57j0l7.12809j0j8&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
[50] 
Quartz India.  In locked down India, women fight coronavirus and domestic violence. Available from: https://qz.com/india/1838351/indias-coronavirus-lockdown-leads-to-more-violence-against-women/
[51] 
The week.  700 domestic violence cases registered during lockdown in Punjab. Available from: https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/04/23/700-domestic-violence-cases-registered-during-lockdown-in-punjab.html
[52] 
Deccanherald.  Coronavirus crisis no lockdown for domestic violence. Available from: https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/insight/coronavirus-crisis-no-lockdown-for-domestic-violence 829941.html
[53] 
Bai Y, Lin C-C, Lin C-Y, Chen JY, Chue CM, Chou P. Survey of stress reactions among health care workers involved with the SARS outbreak. Psychiatr Serv  2004; 55(9): 1055-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.55.9.1055] [PMID: 15345768] 
[54] 
Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, Pogorski S, Galea S, Styra R. SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis  2004; 10(7): 1206-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1007.030703] [PMID: 15324539] 
[55] 
Jeong H, Yim HW, Song Y-J, et al. Mental health status of people isolated due to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. Epidemiol Health  2016; 38: e2016048.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4178/epih.e2016048] [PMID: 28196409] 
[56] 
Blendon RJ, Benson JM, DesRoches CM, Raleigh E, Taylor-Clark K. The public’s response to severe acute respiratory syndrome in Toronto and the United States. Clin Infect Dis  2004; 38(7): 925-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/382355] [PMID: 15034821] 
[57] 
Torales J, O’Higgins M, Castaldelli-Maia JM, Ventriglio A. The outbreak of COVID-19 coronavirus and its impact on global mental health. Int J Soc Psychiatry  2020; 66(4): 317-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020764020915212] [PMID: 32233719] 
[58] 
Cava MA, Fay KE, Beanlands HJ, McCay EA, Wignall R. The experience of quarantine for individuals affected by SARS in Toronto. Public Health Nurs  2005; 22(5): 398-406.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0737-1209.2005.220504.x] [PMID: 16229732] 
[59] 
Wester M, Giesecke J. Ebola and healthcare worker stigma. Scand J Public Health  2019; 47(2): 99-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1403494817753450] [PMID: 29359634] 
[60] 
Pellecchia U, Crestani R, Decroo T, Van den Bergh R, Al-Kourdi Y. Social consequences of Ebola containment measures in Liberia. PLoS One  2015; 10(12): e0143036.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143036] [PMID: 26650630] 
[61] 
DiGiovanni C, Conley J, Chiu D, Zaborski J. Factors influencing compliance with quarantine in Toronto during the 2003 SARS outbreak. Biosecur Bioterror  2004; 2(4): 265-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bsp.2004.2.265] [PMID: 15650436] 
[62] 
Manuell M-E, Cukor J. Mother Nature versus human nature: Public compliance with evacuation and quarantine. Disasters  2011; 35(2): 417-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2010.01219.x] [PMID: 21073672] 
[63] 
Barr B, Taylor-Robinson D, Scott-Samuel A, McKee M, Stuckler D. Suicides associated with the 2008-10 economic recession in England: Time trend analysis. BMJ  2012; 345: e5142.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e5142] [PMID: 22893569] 
[64] 
Robertson E, Hershenfield K, Grace SL, Stewart DE. The psychosocial effects of being quarantined following exposure to SARS: A qualitative study of Toronto health care workers. Can J Psychiatry  2004; 49(6): 403-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674370404900612] [PMID: 15283537] 
[65] 
Wilken JA, Pordell P, Goode B, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices among members of households actively monitored or quarantined to prevent transmission of Ebola virus disease Margibi County, Liberia: February–March 2015. Prehosp Disaster Med  2017; 32(6): 673-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X17006720] [PMID: 28748776] 

Rights & Permissions Print Cite

Article Metrics

9

1

Journal Information

For Authors

For Editors

For Reviewers

Explore Articles

Open Access

Open Access Articles

For Visitors

DOI https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/2666796701999201117103132	Print ISSN 2666-7967
Publisher Name Bentham Science Publisher	Online ISSN 2666-7975

Coronaviruses

Psychological and Mental Health Issues During the SARS-CoV-2 Global Pandemic: A Critical Analysis

Abstract Play Pause

Related Journals

Related Books

Related Articles

Abstract