Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Neuropharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-159X
ISSN (Online): 1875-6190

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Systematic Review Article

Brain Stimulation in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A Systematic Review

Author(s): Chiara Rapinesi*, Georgios D. Kotzalidis, Stefano Ferracuti, Gabriele Sani, Paolo Girardi and Antonio Del Casale

Volume 17, Issue 8, 2019

Page: [787 - 807] Pages: 21

DOI: 10.2174/1570159X17666190409142555

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a highly prevalent, severe, and chronic disease. There is a need for alternative strategies for treatment-resistant OCD.

Objective: This review aims to assess the effect of brain stimulation techniques in OCD.

Methods: We included papers published in peer-reviewed journals dealing with brain stimulation techniques in OCD. We conducted treatment-specific searches for OCD (Technique AND ((randomized OR randomised) AND control* AND trial) AND (magnetic AND stimulation OR (rTMS OR dTMS)) AND (obsess* OR compuls* OR OCD)) on six databases, i.e., PubMed, Cochrane, Scopus, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Web of Science to identify randomised controlled trials and ClinicalTrials.gov for possible additional results.

Results: Different add-on stimulation techniques could be effective for severely ill OCD patients unresponsive to drugs and/or behavioural therapy. Most evidence regarded deep brain stimulation (DBS) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), while there is less evidence regarding transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), electroconvulsive therapy, and vagus nerve stimulation (for these last two there are no sham-controlled studies). Low-frequency TMS may be more effective over the supplementary motor area or the orbitofrontal cortex. DBS showed best results when targeting the crossroad between the nucleus accumbens and the ventral capsule or the subthalamic nucleus. Cathodal tDCS may be better than anodal in treating OCD. Limitations. We had to include methodologically inconsistent underpowered studies.

Conclusion: Different brain stimulation techniques are promising as an add-on treatment of refractory OCD, although studies frequently reported inconsistent results. TMS, DBS, and tDCS could possibly find some use with adequate testing, but their standard methodology still needs to be established.

Keywords: Obsessive-compulsive disorder, brain stimulation, deep brain stimulation, direct current transcranial stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, electroconvulsive therapy.

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Ruscio, A.M.; Stein, D.J.; Chiu, W.T.; Kessler, R.C. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Mol. Psychiatry, 2010, 15(1), 53-63. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mp.2008.94]. [PMID: 18725912].
[2]
Weissman, M.M.; Bland, R.C.; Canino, G.J.; Greenwald, S.; Hwu, H.G.; Lee, C.K.; Newman, S.C.; Oakley-Browne, M.A.; Rubio-Stipec, M.; Wickramaratne, P.J. The cross national epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1994, 55(Suppl.), 5-10. [PMID: 8077177].
[3]
Huang, L.C.; Tsai, K.J.; Wang, H.K.; Sung, P.S.; Wu, M.H.; Hung, K.W.; Lin, S.H. Prevalence, incidence, and comorbidity of clinically diagnosed obsessive-compulsive disorder in Taiwan: A national population-based study. Psychiatry Res., 2014, 220(1-2), 335-341. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.08.011]. [PMID: 25169892].
[4]
Mohammadi, M.R.; Ghanizadeh, A.; Rahgozar, M.; Noorbala, A.A.; Davidian, H.; Afzali, H.M.; Naghavi, H.R.; Yazdi, S.A.; Saberi, S.M.; Mesgarpour, B.; Akhondzadeh, S.; Alaghebandrad, J.; Tehranidoost, M. Prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in Iran. BMC Psychiatry, 2004, 4, 2. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-4-2]. [PMID: 15018627].
[5]
Subramaniam, M.; Abdin, E.; Vaingankar, J.A.; Chong, S.A. Obsessive--compulsive disorder: prevalence, correlates, help-seeking and quality of life in a multiracial Asian population. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol., 2012, 47(12), 2035-2043. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0507-8]. [PMID: 22526825].
[6]
Jaisoorya, T.S.; Janardhan Reddy, Y.C.; Nair, B.S.; Rani, A.; Menon, P.G.; Revamma, M.; Jeevan, C.R.; Radhakrishnan, K.S.; Jose, V.; Thennarasu, K. Prevalence and correlates of obsessivecompulsive disorder and subthreshold obsessive-compulsive disorder among college students in Kerala, India.. Indian J. Psychiatry, 2017, 59(1), 56-62. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.204438]. [PMID: 28529361].
[7]
Adam, Y.; Meinlschmidt, G.; Gloster, A.T.; Lieb, R. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in the community: 12-month prevalence, comorbidity and impairment. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol., 2012, 47(3), 339-349. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0337-5]. [PMID: 21287144].
[8]
Osland, S.; Arnold, P.D.; Pringsheim, T. The prevalence of diagnosed obsessive compulsive disorder and associated comorbidities: A population-based Canadian study. Psychiatry Res., 2018, 268, 137-142. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.07.018]. [PMID: 30025284].
[9]
Torres, A.R.; Prince, M.J.; Bebbington, P.E.; Bhugra, D.; Brugha, T.S.; Farrell, M.; Jenkins, R.; Lewis, G.; Meltzer, H.; Singleton, N. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: prevalence, comorbidity, impact, and help-seeking in the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey of 2000. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2006, 163(11), 1978-1985. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.11.1978]. [PMID: 17074950].
[10]
Heyman, I.; Mataix-Cols, D.; Fineberg, N.A. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. BMJ, 2006, 333(7565), 424-429. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.333.7565.424]. [PMID: 16931840].
[11]
Stein, D.J. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Lancet, 2002, 360(9330), 397-405. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09620-4]. [PMID: 12241794].
[12]
Markarian, Y.; Larson, M.J.; Aldea, M.A.; Baldwin, S.A.; Good, D.; Berkeljon, A.; Murphy, T.K.; Storch, E.A.; McKay, D. Multiple pathways to functional impairment in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clin. Psychol. Rev., 2010, 30(1), 78-88. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.09.005]. [PMID: 19853982].
[13]
Steketee, G. Disability and family burden in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Can. J. Psychiatry, 1997, 42(9), 919-928. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674379704200902]. [PMID: 9429061].
[14]
DuPont, R.L.; Rice, D.P.; Shiraki, S.; Rowland, C.R. Economic costs of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Med. Interface, 1995, 8(4), 102-109. [PMID: 10141765].
[15]
Del Casale, A.; Kotzalidis, G.D.; Rapinesi, C.; Serata, D.; Ambrosi, E.; Simonetti, A.; Pompili, M.; Ferracuti, S.; Tatarelli, R.; Girardi, P. Functional neuroimaging in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychobiology, 2011, 64(2), 61-85. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000325223]. [PMID: 21701225].
[16]
Fineberg, N.A.; Chamberlain, S.R.; Hollander, E.; Boulougouris, V.; Robbins, T.W. Translational approaches to obsessive-compulsive disorder: from animal models to clinical treatment. Br. J. Pharmacol., 2011, 164(4), 1044-1061. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01422.x]. [PMID: 21486280].
[17]
Milad, M.R.; Rauch, S.L. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: beyond segregated cortico-striatal pathways. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.); , 2012, 16, pp. (1)43-51. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.003] [PMID: 22138231]
[18]
Koran, L.M.; Hanna, G.L.; Hollander, E.; Nestadt, G.; Simpson, H.B. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2007, 164(7)(Suppl.), 5-53. [PMID: 17849776].
[19]
Stein, D.J.; Koen, N.; Fineberg, N.; Fontenelle, L.F.; Matsunaga, H.; Osser, D.; Simpson, H.B.A. 2012 evidence-based algorithm for the pharmacotherapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 2012, 14(3), 211-219. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0268-9]. [PMID: 22527872].
[20]
Bandelow, B.; Zohar, J.; Hollander, E.; Kasper, S.; Moller, H.J. WFSBP task force on treatment guidelines for anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and post-traumatic stress disoders. World federation of societies of biological psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and posttraumatic stress disorders - first revision. World J. Biol. Psychiatry, 2008, 9, 248-312. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15622970802465807]. [PMID: 18949648].
[21]
Abudy, A.; Juven-Wetzler, A.; Zohar, J. Pharmacological management of treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Drugs, 2011, 25(7), 585-596. [http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11587860-000000000-00000]. [PMID: 21699270].
[22]
Jenike, M.A. Clinical practice. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. N. Engl. J. Med., 2004, 350(3), 259-265. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp031002]. [PMID: 14724305].
[23]
Pallanti, S.; Quercioli, L. Treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: methodological issues, operational definitions and therapeutic lines. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2006, 30(3), 400-412. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.11.028]. [PMID: 16503369].
[24]
Simpson, H.B.; Huppert, J.D.; Petkova, E.; Foa, E.B.; Liebowitz, M.R. Response versus remission in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2006, 67(2), 269-276. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v67n0214]. [PMID: 16566623].
[25]
Goodman, W.K.; Price, L.H.; Rasmussen, S.A.; Mazure, C.; Fleischmann, R.L.; Hill, C.L.; Heninger, G.R.; Charney, D.S. The yale-brown obsessive compulsive scale. I. Development, use, and reliability. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1989, 46(11), 1006-1011. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110048007]. [PMID: 2684084].
[26]
Bais, M.; Figee, M.; Denys, D. Neuromodulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 2014, 37(3), 393-413. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2014.06.003]. [PMID: 25150569].
[27]
Saba, G.; Moukheiber, A.; Pelissolo, A. Transcranial cortical stimulation in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorders: efficacy studies. Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 2015, 17(5), 36. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0571-3]. [PMID: 25825002].
[28]
Blomstedt, P.; Sjöberg, R.L.; Hansson, M.; Bodlund, O.; Hariz, M.I. Deep brain stimulation in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. World Neurosurg., 2013, 80(6), e245-e253. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2012.10.006]. [PMID: 23044000].
[29]
Higgins, J.P.T.; Green, S. Green, S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. In: Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0; The Cochrane Collaboration 2008.http://handbook-5-1.cochrane.org/https://methods.cochrane.org/bias/assessing-risk-bias-included-studies [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470712184]
[30]
Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med., 2009, 6(7)e1000097 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097]. [PMID: 19621072].
[31]
Barker, A.T.; Jalinous, R.; Freeston, I.L. Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex. Lancet, 1985, 1(8437), 1106-1107. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(85)92413-4]. [PMID: 2860322].
[32]
Sarkhel, S.; Sinha, V.K.; Praharaj, S.K. Adjunctive high-frequency right prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) was not effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder but improved secondary depression. J. Anxiety Disord., 2010, 24(5), 535-539. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.03.011]. [PMID: 20392594].
[33]
Fitzgerald, P.B.; Fountain, S.; Daskalakis, Z.J. A comprehensive review of the effects of rTMS on motor cortical excitability and inhibition. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2006, 117(12), 2584-2596. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2006.06.712]. [PMID: 16890483].
[34]
Speer, A.M.; Kimbrell, T.A.; Wassermann, E.M.D.; D., Repella J.; Willis, M.W.; Herscovitch, P.; Post, R.M. Opposite effects of high and low frequency rTMS on regional brain activity in depressed patients. Biol. Psychiatry, 2000, 48(12), 1133-1141. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(00)01065-9]. [PMID: 11137053].
[35]
Mantovani, A.; Simpson, H.B.; Fallon, B.A.; Rossi, S.; Lisanby, S.H. Randomized sham-controlled trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2010, 13(2), 217-227. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1461145709990435]. [PMID: 19691873].
[36]
Greenberg, B.D.; George, M.S.; Martin, J.D.; Benjamin, J.; Schlaepfer, T.E.; Altemus, M.; Wassermann, E.M.; Post, R.M.; Murphy, D.L. Effect of prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary study. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1997, 154(6), 867-869. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.6.867]. [PMID: 9167520].
[37]
Alonso, P.; Pujol, J.; Cardoner, N.; Benlloch, L.; Deus, J.; Menchón, J.M.; Capdevila, A.; Vallejo, J. Right prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2001, 158(7), 1143-1145. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1143]. [PMID: 11431238].
[38]
Prasko, J.; Pasková, B.; Záleský, R.; Novák, T.; Kopecek, M.; Bares, M.; Horácek, J. The effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on symptoms in obsessive compulsive disorder. A randomized, double blind, sham controlled study. Neuroendocrinol. Lett., 2006, 27(3), 327-332. [PMID: 16816829].
[39]
Sachdev, P.S.; Loo, C.K.; Mitchell, P.B.; McFarquhar, T.F.; Malhi, G.S. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder: A double-blind controlled investigation. Psychol. Med., 2007, 37(11), 1645-1649. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707001092]. [PMID: 17655805].
[40]
Kang, J.I.; Kim, C.H.; Namkoong, K.; Lee, C.I.; Kim, S.J. A randomized controlled study of sequentially applied repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2009, 70(12), 1645-1651. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.08m04500]. [PMID: 19709504].
[41]
Mansur, C.G.; Myczkowki, M.L.; de Barros Cabral, S. Sartorelli, Mdo.C.; Bellini, B.B.; Dias, A.M.; Bernik, M.A.; Marcolin, M.A. Placebo effect after prefrontal magnetic stimulation in the treatment of resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2011, 14(10), 1389-1397. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1461145711000575]. [PMID: 21557884].
[42]
Badawy, A.El; Sawy, H. El, Hay, M.A. Efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the management of obsessive compulsive disorder. Egypt. J. Neurol. Psychiat. Neurosurg., 2010, 47, 1.
[43]
Ma, X.; Huang, Y.; Liao, L.; Jin, Y. A randomized double-blinded sham-controlled trial of α electroencephalogram-guided transcranial magnetic stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.), 2014, 127(4), 601-606. [PMID: 24534207].
[44]
Elbeh, K.A.M.; Elserogy, Y.M.B.; Khalifa, H.E.; Ahmed, M.A.; Hafez, M.H.; Khedr, E.M. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorders: Double blind randomized clinical trial. Psychiatry Res., 2016, 238, 264-269. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.02.031]. [PMID: 27086243].
[45]
Seo, H.J.; Jung, Y.E.; Lim, H.K.; Um, Y.H.; Lee, C.U.; Chae, J.H. Adjunctive low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in patients with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci., 2016, 14(2), 153-160. [http://dx.doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2016.14.2.153]. [PMID: 27121426].
[46]
Jahangard, L.; Haghighi, M.; Shyayganfard, M.; Ahmadpanah, M.; Sadeghi Bahmani, D.; Bajoghli, H.; Holsboer-Trachsler, E.; Brand, S. Sadeghi, Bahmani, D.; Bajoghli, H.; Holsboer-Trachsler, E.; Brand, S. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation improved symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, but also cognitive performance: results from a randomized clinical trial with a cross-over design and sham condition. Neuropsychobiology, 2016, 73(4), 224-232. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000446287]. [PMID: 27299900].
[47]
Carmi, L.; Alyagon, U.; Barnea-Ygael, N.; Zohar, J.; Dar, R.; Zangen, A. Clinical and electrophysiological outcomes of deep TMS over the medial prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices in OCD patients. Brain Stimul., 2018, 11(1), 158-165. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2017.09.004]. [PMID: 28927961].
[48]
Ruffini, C.; Locatelli, M.; Lucca, A.; Benedetti, F.; Insacco, C.; Smeraldi, E. Augmentation effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the orbitofrontal cortex in drug-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder patients: a controlled investigation. Prim. Care Companion J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2009, 11(5), 226-230. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/PCC.08m00663]. [PMID: 19956460].
[49]
Nauczyciel, C.; Le Jeune, F.; Naudet, F.; Douabin, S.; Esquevin, A.; Vérin, M.; Dondaine, T.; Robert, G.; Drapier, D.; Millet, B. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the orbitofrontal cortex for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, crossover study. Transl. Psychiatry, 2014, 4e436 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.62]. [PMID: 25203167].
[50]
Mantovani, A.; Lisanby, S.H.; Pieraccini, F.; Ulivelli, M.; Castrogiovanni, P.; Rossi, S. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and Tourette’s syndrome (TS). Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2006, 9(1), 95-100. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1461145705005729]. [PMID: 15982444].
[51]
Gomes, P.V.; Brasil-Neto, J.P.; Allam, N.; Rodrigues de Souza, E. A randomized, double-blind trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder with three-month follow-up. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2012, 24(4), 437-443. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11100242]. [PMID: 23224449].
[52]
Mantovani, A.; Rossi, S.; Bassi, B.D.; Simpson, H.B.; Fallon, B.A.; Lisanby, S.H. Modulation of motor cortex excitability in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an exploratory study on the relations of neurophysiology measures with clinical outcome. Psychiatry Res., 2013, 210(3), 1026-1032. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.08.054]. [PMID: 24064461].
[53]
Pelissolo, A.; Harika-Germaneau, G.; Rachid, F.; Gaudeau-Bosma, C.; Tanguy, M.L.; BenAdhira, R.; Bouaziz, N.; Popa, T.; Wassouf, I.; Saba, G.; Januel, D.; Jaafari, N. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to supplementary motor area in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder treatment: a sham-controlled trial. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2016, 19(8)pyw025 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyw025]. [PMID: 27207923].
[54]
Hawken, E.R.; Dilkov, D.; Kaludiev, E.; Simek, S.; Zhang, F.; Milev, R. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the supplementary motor area in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multi-site study. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2016, 17(3), 420. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms17030420]. [PMID: 27011177].
[55]
Alptekin, K.; Degirmenci, B.; Kivircik, B.; Durak, H.; Yemez, B.; Derebek, E.; Tunca, Z. Tc-99m HMPAO brain perfusion SPECT in drug-free obsessive-compulsive patients without depression. Psychiatry Res., 2001, 107(1), 51-56. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0925-4927(01)00086-5]. [PMID: 11472864].
[56]
Baxter, L.R., Jr; Schwartz, J.M.; Mazziotta, J.C.; Phelps, M.E.; Pahl, J.J.; Guze, B.H.; Fairbanks, L. Cerebral glucose metabolic rates in nondepressed patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1988, 145(12), 1560-1563. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.145.12.1560]. [PMID: 3264118].
[57]
Swedo, S.E.; Pietrini, P.; Leonard, H.L.; Schapiro, M.B.; Rettew, D.C.; Goldberger, E.L.; Rapoport, S.I.; Rapoport, J.L.; Grady, C.L. Cerebral glucose metabolism in childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Revisualization during pharmacotherapy. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1992, 49(9), 690-694. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820090018003]. [PMID: 1514873].
[58]
Berlim, M.T.; Neufeld, N.H.; Van den Eynde, F. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): an exploratory meta-analysis of randomized and sham-controlled trials. J. Psychiatr. Res., 2013, 47(8), 999-1006. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.03.022]. [PMID: 23615189].
[59]
D’Urso, G.; Brunoni, A.R.; Mazzaferro, M.P.; Anastasia, A.; de Bartolomeis, A.; Mantovani, A. Transcranial direct current stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, controlled, partial crossover trial. Depress. Anxiety, 2016, 33(12), 1132-1140. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.22578]. [PMID: 27802585].
[60]
Tortella, G.; Casati, R.; Aparicio, L.V.; Mantovani, A.; Senço, N.; D’Urso, G.; Brunelin, J.; Guarienti, F.; Selingardi, P.M.; Muszkat, D. Junior, Bde.S.; Valiengo, L.; Moffa, A.H.; Simis, M.; Borrione, L.; Brunoni, A.R. Transcranial direct current stimulation in psychiatric disorders. World J. Psychiatry, 2015, 5(1), 88-102. [http://dx.doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.88]. [PMID: 25815258].
[61]
Senço, N.M.; Huang, Y.; D’Urso, G.; Parra, L.C.; Bikson, M.; Mantovani, A.; Shavitt, R.G.; Hoexter, M.Q.; Miguel, E.C.; Brunoni, A.R. Transcranial direct current stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: emerging clinical evidence and considerations for optimal montage of electrodes. Expert Rev. Med. Devices, 2015, 12(4), 381-391. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/17434440.2015.1037832]. [PMID: 25982412].
[62]
Wagner, T.; Valero-Cabre, A.; Pascual-Leone, A. Noninvasive human brain stimulation. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng., 2007, 9, 527-565. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.9.061206.133100]. [PMID: 17444810].
[63]
Bikson, M.; Inoue, M.; Akiyama, H.; Deans, J.K.; Fox, J.E.; Miyakawa, H.; Jefferys, J.G. Effects of uniform extracellular DC electric fields on excitability in rat hippocampal slices in vitro. J. Physiol., 2004, 557(Pt 1), 175-190. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2003.055772]. [PMID: 14978199].
[64]
Paulus, W. Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES - tDCS; tRNS, tACS) methods. Neuropsychol. Rehabil., 2011, 21(5), 602-617. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2011.557292]. [PMID: 21819181].
[65]
Shafi, M.M.; Westover, M.B.; Fox, M.D.; Pascual-Leone, A. Exploration and modulation of brain network interactions with noninvasive brain stimulation in combination with neuroimaging. Eur. J. Neurosci., 2012, 35(6), 805-825. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08035.x]. [PMID: 22429242].
[66]
Nitsche, M.A.; Paulus, W. Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J. Physiol., 2000, 527(Pt 3), 633-639. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00633.x]. [PMID: 10990547].
[67]
Zheng, X.; Alsop, D.C.; Schlaug, G. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on human regional cerebral blood flow. Neuroimage, 2011, 58(1), 26-33. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.018]. [PMID: 21703350].
[68]
Rauch, S.L.; Jenike, M.A.; Alpert, N.M.; Baer, L.; Breiter, H.C.; Savage, C.R.; Fischman, A.J. Regional cerebral blood flow measured during symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder using oxygen 15-labeled carbon dioxide and positron emission tomography. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1994, 51(1), 62-70. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010062008]. [PMID: 8279930].
[69]
Hou, J.; Wu, W.; Lin, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhou, D.; Guo, J.; Gu, S.; He, M.; Ahmed, S.; Hu, J.; Qu, W.; Li, H. Localization of cerebral functional deficits in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a resting-state fMRI study. J. Affect. Disord., 2012, 138(3), 313-321. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.022]. [PMID: 22331021].
[70]
Lefaucheur, J.P.; Antal, A.; Ayache, S.S.; Benninger, D.H.; Brunelin, J.; Cogiamanian, F.; Cotelli, M.; De Ridder, D.; Ferrucci, R.; Langguth, B.; Marangolo, P.; Mylius, V.; Nitsche, M.A.; Padberg, F.; Palm, U.; Poulet, E.; Priori, A.; Rossi, S.; Schecklmann, M.; Vanneste, S.; Ziemann, U.; Garcia-Larrea, L.; Paulus, W. Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Clin. Neurophysiol., 2017, 128(1), 56-92. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2016.10.087]. [PMID: 27866120].
[71]
Volpato, C.; Piccione, F.; Cavinato, M.; Duzzi, D.; Schiff, S.; Foscolo, L.; Venneri, A. Modulation of affective symptoms and resting state activity by brain stimulation in a treatment-resistant case of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurocase, 2013, 19(4), 360-370. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13554794.2012.667131]. [PMID: 22554168].
[72]
Narayanaswamy, J.C.; Jose, D.; Chhabra, H.; Agarwal, S.M.; Shrinivasa, B.; Hegde, A.; Bose, A.; Kalmady, S.V.; Venkatasubramanian, G.; Reddy, Y.C. Successful application of add-on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for treatment of SSRI resistant OCD. Brain Stimul., 2015, 8(3), 655-657. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2014.12.003]. [PMID: 25583654].
[73]
D’Urso, G.; Micillo, M.; Cosentino, C.; Mantovani, A. Differential effects of anodal and cathodal tDCS over the supplementary motor area in OCD patients. Biol. Psychiatry, 2014, 75, 13S.
[74]
Bation, R.; Poulet, E.; Haesebaert, F.; Saoud, M.; Brunelin, J. Transcranial direct current stimulation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open-label pilot study. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2016, 65, 153-157. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.10.001]. [PMID: 26439873].
[75]
D’Urso, G.; Brunoni, A.R.; Anastasia, A.; Micillo, M.; de Bartolomeis, A.; Mantovani, A. Polarity-dependent effects of transcranial direct current stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurocase, 2015, 14, 1-5. [PMID: 25971992].
[76]
Hazari, N.; Narayanaswamy, J.C.; Chhabra, H.; Bose, A.; Venkatasubramanian, G.; Reddy, Y.C. Response to transcranial direct current stimulation in a case of episodic obsessive compulsive disorder. J. ECT, 2016, 32(2), 144-146. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCT.0000000000000309]. [PMID: 27008329].
[77]
Mondino, M.; Haesebaert, F.; Poulet, E.; Saoud, M.; Brunelin, J. Efficacy of cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation over the left orbitofrontal cortex in a patient with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. ECT, 2015, 31(4), 271-272. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCT.0000000000000218]. [PMID: 25651393].
[78]
Palm, U.; Leitner, B.; Kirsch, B.; Behler, N.; Kumpf, U.; Wulf, L.; Padberg, F.; Hasan, A. Prefrontal tDCS and sertraline in obsessive compulsive disorder: a case report and review of the literature. Neurocase, 2017, 23(2), 173-177. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13554794.2017.1319492]. [PMID: 28427306].
[79]
Brunelin, J.; Mondino, M.; Bation, R.; Palm, U.; Saoud, M.; Poulet, E. Transcranial direct current stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review. Brain Sci., 2018, 8(2)E37 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8020037]. [PMID: 29495298].
[80]
Haynes, W.I.; Mallet, L. High-frequency stimulation of deep brain structures in obsessive-compulsive disorder: the search for a valid circuit. Eur. J. Neurosci., 2010, 32(7), 1118-1127. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07418.x]. [PMID: 21039951].
[81]
Karas, P.J.; Lee, S.; Jimenez-Shahed, J.; Goodman, W.K.; Viswanathan, A.; Sheth, S.A. Deep brain stimulation for obsessive compulsive disorder: evolution of surgical stimulation target parallels changing model of dysfunctional brain circuits. Front. Neurosci., 2019, 12, 998. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00998]. [PMID: 30670945].
[82]
Huff, W.; Lenartz, D.; Schormann, M.; Lee, S.H.; Kuhn, J.; Koulousakis, A.; Mai, J.; Daumann, J.; Maarouf, M.; Klosterkötter, J.; Sturm, V. Unilateral deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in patients with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: Outcomes after one year. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg., 2010, 112(2), 137-143. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2009.11.006]. [PMID: 20006424].
[83]
Greenberg, B.D.; Gabriels, L.A.; Malone, D.A., Jr; Rezai, A.R.; Friehs, G.M.; Okun, M.S.; Shapira, N.A.; Foote, K.D.; Cosyns, P.R.; Kubu, C.S.; Malloy, P.F.; Salloway, S.P.; Giftakis, J.E.; Rise, M.T.; Machado, A.G.; Baker, K.B.; Stypulkowski, P.H.; Goodman, W.K.; Rasmussen, S.A.; Nuttin, B.J. Deep brain stimulation of the ventral internal capsule/ventral striatum for obsessive-compulsive disorder: Worldwide experience. Mol. Psychiatry, 2010, 15(1), 64-79. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mp.2008.55]. [PMID: 18490925].
[84]
Nuttin, B.; Cosyns, P.; Demeulemeester, H.; Gybels, J.; Meyerson, B. Electrical stimulation in anterior limbs of internal capsules in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Lancet, 1999, 354(9189), 1526. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02376-4]. [PMID: 10551504].
[85]
Nuttin, B.J.; Gabriëls, L.A.; Cosyns, P.R.; Meyerson, B.A.; Andréewitch, S.; Sunaert, S.G.; Maes, A.F.; Dupont, P.J.; Gybels, J.M.; Gielen, F.; Demeulemeester, H.G. Long-term electrical capsular stimulation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurosurgery, 2003, 52(6), 1263-1272. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000064565.49299.9A]. [PMID: 12762871].
[86]
Anderson, D.; Ahmed, A. Treatment of patients with intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder with anterior capsular stimulation. Case report. J. Neurosurg., 2003, 98(5), 1104-1108. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/jns.2003.98.5.1104]. [PMID: 12744372].
[87]
Abelson, J.L.; Curtis, G.C.; Sagher, O.; Albucher, R.C.; Harrigan, M.; Taylor, S.F.; Martis, B.; Giordani, B. Deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry, 2005, 57(5), 510-516. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.042]. [PMID: 15737666].
[88]
Greenberg, B.D.; Malone, D.A.; Friehs, G.M.; Rezai, A.R.; Kubu, C.S.; Malloy, P.F.; Salloway, S.P.; Okun, M.S.; Goodman, W.K.; Rasmussen, S.A. Three-year outcomes in deep brain stimulation for highly resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2006, 31(11), 2384-2393. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301165]. [PMID: 16855529].
[89]
Goodman, W.K.; Foote, K.D.; Greenberg, B.D.; Ricciuti, N.; Bauer, R.; Ward, H.; Shapira, N.A.; Wu, S.S.; Hill, C.L.; Rasmussen, S.A.; Okun, M.S. Deep brain stimulation for intractable obsessive compulsive disorder: pilot study using a blinded, staggered-onset design. Biol. Psychiatry, 2010, 67(6), 535-542. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.11.028]. [PMID: 20116047].
[90]
Roh, D.; Chang, W.S.; Chang, J.W.; Kim, C.H. Long-term follow-up of deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res., 2012, 200(2-3), 1067-1070. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.06.018]. [PMID: 22784468].
[91]
Sturm, V.; Lenartz, D.; Koulousakis, A.; Treuer, H.; Herholz, K.; Klein, J.C.; Klosterkötter, J. The nucleus accumbens: a target for deep brain stimulation in obsessive-compulsive- and anxiety-disorders. J. Chem. Neuroanat., 2003, 26(4), 293-299. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchemneu.2003.09.003]. [PMID: 14729131].
[92]
Baas, J.M.; Klumpers, F.; Mantione, M.H.; Figee, M.; Vulink, N.C.; Schuurman, P.R.; Mazaheri, A.; Denys, D. No impact of deep brain stimulation on fear-potentiated startle in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 2014, 8, 305. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00305]. [PMID: 25249953].
[93]
Tsai, H.C.; Chang, C.H.; Pan, J.I.; Hsieh, H.J.; Tsai, S.T.; Hung, H.Y.; Chen, S.Y. Pilot study of deep brain stimulation in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder ethnic Chinese patients. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2012, 66(4), 303-312. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1819.2012.02352.x]. [PMID: 22624735].
[94]
Saxena, S.; Rauch, S.L. Functional neuroimaging and the neuroanatomy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 2000, 23(3), 563-586. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70181-7]. [PMID: 10986728].
[95]
Denys, D.; Mantione, M.; Figee, M.; van den Munckhof, P.; Koerselman, F.; Westenberg, H.; Bosch, A.; Schuurman, R. Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2010, 67(10), 1061-1068. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.122]. [PMID: 20921122].
[96]
Figee, M.; Luigjes, J.; Smolders, R.; Valencia-Alfonso, C.E.; van Wingen, G.; de Kwaasteniet, B.; Mantione, M.; Ooms, P.; de Koning, P.; Vulink, N.; Levar, N.; Droge, L.; van den Munckhof, P.; Schuurman, P.R.; Nederveen, A.; van den Brink, W.; Mazaheri, A.; Vink, M.; Denys, D. Deep brain stimulation restores frontostriatal network activity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Nat. Neurosci., 2013, 16(4), 386-387. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.3344]. [PMID: 23434914].
[97]
Mallet, L.; Polosan, M.; Jaafari, N.; Baup, N.; Welter, M.L.; Fontaine, D.; du Montcel, S.T.; Yelnik, J.; Chéreau, I.; Arbus, C.; Raoul, S.; Aouizerate, B.; Damier, P.; Chabardès, S.; Czernecki, V.; Ardouin, C.; Krebs, M.O.; Bardinet, E.; Chaynes, P.; Burbaud, P.; Cornu, P.; Derost, P.; Bougerol, T.; Bataille, B.; Mattei, V.; Dormont, D.; Devaux, B.; Vérin, M.; Houeto, J.L.; Pollak, P.; Benabid, A.L.; Agid, Y.; Krack, P.; Millet, B.; Pelissolo, A. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. N. Engl. J. Med., 2008, 359(20), 2121-2134. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0708514]. [PMID: 19005196].
[98]
Chabardès, S.; Polosan, M.; Krack, P.; Bastin, J.; Krainik, A.; David, O.; Bougerol, T.; Benabid, A.L. Deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: subthalamic nucleus target. World Neurosurg., 2013, 80(3-4), 31.e1-31.e8. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2012.03.010]. [PMID: 22469523].
[99]
Barcia, J.A.; Reyes, L.; Arza, R.; Saceda, J.; Avecillas, J.; Yáñez, R.; García-Albea, J.; Ortiz, T.; López-Ibor, M.I.; López-Ibor, J.J. Deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: is the side relevant? Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., 2014, 92(1), 31-36. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000353187]. [PMID: 24216976].
[100]
Jiménez, F.; Nicolini, H.; Lozano, A.M.; Piedimonte, F.; Salín, R.; Velasco, F. Electrical stimulation of the inferior thalamic peduncle in the treatment of major depression and obsessive compulsive disorders. World Neurosurg., 2013, 80(3-4), 30.e17-30.e25. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2012.07.010]. [PMID: 22824558].
[101]
Nair, G.; Evans, A.; Bear, R.E.; Velakoulis, D.; Bittar, R.G. The anteromedial GPi as a new target for deep brain stimulation in obsessive compulsive disorder. J. Clin. Neurosci., 2014, 21(5), 815-821. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2013.10.003]. [PMID: 24524950].
[102]
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE); Obsessive-compulsive disorder: core interventions in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder: core interventions in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. , 2005.Available at. http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG31
[103]
American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Psychiatric Association., 2007.http://psychiatryonline.org/guidelines.aspx
[104]
Fontenelle, L.F.; Coutinho, E.S.; Lins-Martins, N.M.; Fitzgerald, P.B.; Fujiwara, H.; Yücel, M. Electroconvulsive therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2015, 76(7), 949-957. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14r09129]. [PMID: 25844888].
[105]
Khanna, S.; Gangadhar, B.N.; Sinha, V.; Rajendra, P.N.; Channabasavanna, S.M. Electroconvulsive therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Convuls. Ther., 1988, 4(4), 314-320. [PMID: 11940981].
[106]
Maletzky, B.; McFarland, B.; Burt, A. Refractory obsessive compulsive disorder and ECT. Convuls. Ther., 1994, 10(1), 34-42. [PMID: 8055290].
[107]
Casey, D.A.; Davis, M.H. Obsessive-compulsive disorder responsive to electroconvulsive therapy in an elderly woman. South. Med. J., 1994, 87(8), 862-864. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00007611-199408000-00027]. [PMID: 8052907].
[108]
Thomas, S.G.; Kellner, C.H. Remission of major depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder after a single unilateral ECT. J. ECT, 2003, 19(1), 50-51. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00124509-200303000-00011]. [PMID: 12621279].
[109]
Strassnig, M.; Riedel, M.; Müller, N. Electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with Tourette’s syndrome and co-morbid Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. World J. Biol. Psychiatry, 2004, 5(3), 164-166. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15622970410029930]. [PMID: 15346542].
[110]
Chaves, M.P.; Crippa, J.A.; Morais, S.L.; Zuardi, A.W. Electroconvulsive therapy for coexistent schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2005, 66(4), 542-543. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v66n0420c]. [PMID: 15816802].
[111]
Hanisch, F.; Friedemann, J.; Piro, J.; Gutmann, P. Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy for comorbid pharmacotherapy-refractory obsessive-compulsive and schizoaffective disorder. Eur. J. Med. Res., 2009, 14(8), 367-368. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2047-783X-14-8-367]. [PMID: 19666398].
[112]
Loi, S.; Bonwick, R. Electroconvulsive therapy for treatment of late-onset obsessive compulsive disorder. Int. Psychogeriatr., 2010, 22(5), 830-831. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1041610210000451]. [PMID: 20370958].
[113]
Makhinson, M.; Furst, B.A.; Shuff, M.K.; Kwon, G.E. Successful treatment of co-occurring catatonia and obsessive-compulsive disorder with concurrent electroconvulsive therapy and benzodiazepine administration. J. ECT, 2012, 28(3), e35-e36. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCT.0b013e318254c2ea]. [PMID: 22914637].
[114]
Raveendranathan, D.; Srinivasaraju, R.; Ratheesh, A.; Math, S.B.; Reddy, Y.C. Treatment-refractory OCD responding to maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2012, 24(2), E16-E17. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11060124]. [PMID: 22772680].
[115]
Bülbül, F.; Copoglu, U.S.; Alpak, G.; Unal, A.; Tastan, M.F.; Savas, H.A. Maintenance therapy with electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with a codiagnosis of bipolar disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. ECT, 2013, 29(2), e21-e22. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCT.0b013e31827b4e76]. [PMID: 23519221].
[116]
Schwitzgebel, R.K.; Traugott, M. Initial note on the placebo effect of machines. Behav. Sci., 1968, 13(4), 267-273. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830130402]. [PMID: 5663895].
[117]
Krebs, G.; Isomura, K.; Lang, K.; Jassi, A.; Heyman, I.; Diamond, H.; Advani, J.; Turner, C. Mataix-Cols, D. How resistant is ‘treatment-resistant’ obsessive-compulsive disorder in youth? Br. J. Clin. Psychol., 2015, 54(1), 63-75.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
83
7
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy