Frontiers in Anti-Infective Drug Discovery

Volume: 2

Anti-Malaria Chemotherapy: State-of-the-Art in Prevention and Treatment and Novel Leads for Drug Development

Author(s): Ana Maria Madeira M. Faísca Phillips

Pp: 269-397 (129)

DOI: 10.2174/9781608058600114020007

* (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Malaria is an infectious disease endemic to 106 countries of the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. According to the World Health Organization there were 216 million cases of malaria in 2010 that resulted in 655000 deaths. Children under the age of 5 are the most vulnerable, but approximately half of the world’s population is at risk. Malaria is a febrile illness caused by parasitic protozoa of the genus Plasmodium, and transmitted exclusively by Anopheles mosquitoes. Control involves both prevention, through the use of indoor insecticide spraying with pyrethroids, insecticide treated bed nets, drug treatment of populations at high risk of infection and disease treatment. Malaria can be cured, but the development of resistance by Plasmodium is recurrent. Due to its high mortality and morbidity, the eradication of this disease has high priority in the UN 2000 Millennium Development Goals. As a result of renewed efforts, malaria related mortality decreased by 26% in the period 2000-2010, but control tools are limited. Presently there are no vaccines registered for this disease. The most deadly variant, caused by Plasmodium falciparum, is treated with artemisinin-based combination therapy with a 4-aminoquinoline or an amino alcohol. Recent reports of mosquito resistance to pyrethroid insecticides and of Plasmodium to artemisinin are serious causes for concern. The development of novel drugs remains a big challenge. This chapter highlights the state-of-the-art in malaria prevention and treatment. The literature published since 2000 on the development of new leads for chemotherapy is also reviewed.


Keywords: Malaria, antimalarial, Plasmodium, protozoa, Anopheles, infectious disease, pharmacology, artemisinin combination therapy, quinine, erythrocytes, antibiotics, aminoquinolines.

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      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
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      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Trial Access" as access_base_text, CASE j.type WHEN 111 THEN true ELSE false END as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_trail` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 873355389 and j.to_ip >=873355389 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739987978 and j.to_date >= 1739987978 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 6124) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Subscribed" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "S" as content_download_type, null as restricted_user_access_key, null as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_corporate` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 873355389 and j.to_ip >=873355389 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739987978 and j.to_date >= 1739987978 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 6124) union (select j.user_access_id,j.volume_id,j.user_id,j.from_ip,j.to_ip,j.type,j.track,"Token Based Access" as access_base_text, false as terms_popup, "R" as content_download_type, j.uc_id as restricted_user_access_key, "v" as restricted_user_access_type, CASE j.track WHEN 0 THEN false ELSE true END as tracksAccessByVolume,"chapter" as access_level, j.chapter_id from `user_access_chapter_token` as `j` inner join `user_access_info` as `info` on `j`.`user_access_id` = `info`.`user_access_id` where ((j.from_ip <= 873355389 and j.to_ip >=873355389 )) and ((j.from_date <= 1739987978 and j.to_date >= 1739987978 and j.perpetual= 0) or (j.from_date is null and j.to_date is null and j.perpetual= 1)) and j.chapter_id = 6124)
      760μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022UserAccess.php#1266
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/UserAccess/UserAccess.php:1266
      • 14. app/Http/Controllers/ChapterController.php:1549
      • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
      • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
    • select b.banner_link, b.banner_name, b.banner_script, b.banner_remarks, b.banner_file_name, b.banner_placement, bd.content_type, bd.content_id from `tbl_banner` as `b` inner join `tbl_banner_detail` as `bd` on `bd`.`banner_id` = `b`.`banner_id` inner join `users` as `u` on `u`.`id` = `b`.`updated_by` where `b`.`banner_ebook` = 1 and `bd`.`content_type` = 'B' and `bd`.`content_id` = 1474 and `b`.`banner_from_date` <= 1739987978 and `b`.`banner_to_date` >= 1739987978 and `b`.`banner_status` = 'A' order by `b`.`banner_id` desc
      1.35msalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Banner.php#95
      Bindings
      • 0: 1
      • 1: B
      • 2: 1474
      • 3: 1739987978
      • 4: 1739987978
      • 5: A
      Backtrace
      • 13. app/Models/Banner.php:95
      • 14. app/Http/helpers.php:404
      • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    • select count(*) as aggregate from `uc_cart_products` where cart_id='e30ea91100cd9b2d5c5a8df2b5e822ca'
      300μsalphaeurekaselec_live_10_06_2022Cart.php#271
      Backtrace
      • 15. app/Models/Cart.php:271
      • 16. view::layouts._header:260
      • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:124
      • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
      • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:73
    App\Models\Keywords
    12Keywords.php#?
    App\Models\Chapter
    1Chapter.php#?
    App\Models\Ebook
    1Ebook.php#?
        _token
        pNtZus8lv5MRZDAl8dGLWNemECPP6yDPuGcyhM1C
        uc_cart_id
        e30ea91100cd9b2d5c5a8df2b5e822ca
        _previous
        array:1 [ "url" => "http://alpha.eurekaselect.com/chapter/6124" ]
        _flash
        array:2 [ "old" => [] "new" => [] ]
        PHPDEBUGBAR_STACK_DATA
        []
        path_info
        /chapter/6124
        status_code
        200
        
        status_text
        OK
        format
        html
        content_type
        text/html; charset=UTF-8
        request_query
        []
        
        request_request
        []
        
        request_headers
        0 of 0
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        response_headers
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        ClearShow all
        Date ↕MethodURLData
        #12025-02-19 17:59:38GET/chapter/61241121914