摘要
恶性高级别胶质瘤（HGG）是最常见且极其致命的原发性颅内肿瘤类型。在大多数病例中，这些肿瘤在肿瘤切除的主要区域的2至3cm内复发。此外，血脑屏障显着限制了许多全身给药的化学治疗剂进入肿瘤的途径，这表明对新治疗模式的严格需求。因此，使用HGG的局部药物递送靶向治疗成为开发新型治疗策略的优先事项。有效使用化学治疗HGG的主要目的包括将药物递送至肿瘤区域并将化学治疗剂直接注入肿瘤的血管供应中，这可通过增强向肿瘤组织的药物递送来改善药代动力学特征。本文综述了HGGs临床和分子特征，化疗应用的不同方法，特别是现有的有希望的HGG局部给药靶向治疗方法，可有效抑制HGG的肿瘤侵袭，增殖和复发，对抗致命疾病。毫无疑问，针对这些HGG的新型化学药物可能是神经肿瘤学中最重要的方向之一。
关键词: 胶质瘤，给药，血脑屏障，遗传改变，化疗，恶性高级别胶质瘤
图形摘要
[1]
Louis, D.N.; Ohgaki, H.; Wiestler, O.D.; Cavenee, W.K.; Burger, P.C.; Jouvet, A.; Scheithauer, B.W.; Kleihues, P. The 2007 WHO classification of tumours of the central nervous system. Acta Neuropathol., 2007, 114(2), 97-109.
[2]
Huse, J.T.; Holland, E.C. Targeting brain cancer: advances in the molecular pathology of malignant glioma and medulloblastoma. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2010, 10(5), 319-331.
[3]
Arko, L.; Katsyv, I.; Park, G.E.; Luan, W.P.; Park, J.K. Experimental approaches for the treatment of malignant gliomas. Pharmacol. Ther., 2010, 128(1), 1-36.
[4]
Stupp, R.; Tonn, J.C.; Brada, M.; Pentheroudakis, G. High-grade malignant glioma: ESMO clinical practice guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann. Oncol., 2010, 21(Suppl. 5), v190-v193.
[6]
Dolecek, T.A.; Propp, J.M.; Stroup, N.E.; Kruchko, C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2005-2009. Neuro-oncol., 2012, 14(Suppl. 5), v1-v49.
[7]
Nagarajan, R.P.; Costello, J.F. Epigenetic mechanisms in glioblastoma multiforme. Semin. Cancer Biol., 2009, 19(3), 188-197.
[8]
Dahlback, H.S.; Brandal, P.; Meling, T.R.; Gorunova, L.; Scheie, D.; Heim, S. Genomic aberrations in 80 cases of primary glioblastoma multiforme: Pathogenetic heterogeneity and putative cytogenetic pathways. Genes Chromosomes Cancer, 2009, 48(10), 908-924.
[9]
Bonavia, R.; Inda, M.M.; Cavenee, W.K.; Furnari, F.B. Heterogeneity maintenance in glioblastoma: a social network. Cancer Res., 2011, 71(12), 4055-4060.
[10]
Karsy, M.; Gelbman, M.; Shah, P.; Balumbu, O.; Moy, F.; Arslan, E. Established and emerging variants of glioblastoma multiforme: review of morphological and molecular features. Folia Neuropathol., 2012, 50(4), 301-321.
[11]
Comprehensive genomic characterization defines human glioblastoma genes and core pathways. Nature, 2008, 455(7216), 1061-1068.
[12]
Dudley, A.; Sater, M.; Le, P.U.; Trinh, G.; Sadr, M.S.; Bergeron, J.; Deleavey, G.F.; Bedell, B.; Damha, M.J.; Petrecca, K. DRR regulates AKT activation to drive brain cancer invasion. Oncogene, 2014, 33(41), 4952-4960.
[13]
Shete, S.; Hosking, F.J.; Robertson, L.B.; Dobbins, S.E.; Sanson, M.; Malmer, B.; Simon, M.; Marie, Y.; Boisselier, B.; Delattre, J.Y.; Hoang-Xuan, K.; El Hallani, S.; Idbaih, A.; Zelenika, D.; Andersson, U.; Henriksson, R.; Bergenheim, A.T.; Feychting, M.; Lonn, S.; Ahlbom, A.; Schramm, J.; Linnebank, M.; Hemminki, K.; Kumar, R.; Hepworth, S.J.; Price, A.; Armstrong, G.; Liu, Y.; Gu, X.; Yu, R.; Lau, C.; Schoemaker, M.; Muir, K.; Swerdlow, A.; Lathrop, M.; Bondy, M.; Houlston, R.S. Genome-wide association study identifies five susceptibility loci for glioma. Nat. Genet., 2009, 41(8), 899-904.
[14]
Hill, C.; Hunter, S.B.; Brat, D.J. Genetic markers in glioblastoma: prognostic significance and future therapeutic implications. Adv. Anat. Pathol., 2003, 10(4), 212-217.
[15]
Killela, P.J.; Reitman, Z.J.; Jiao, Y.; Bettegowda, C.; Agrawal, N.; Diaz, L.A., Jr; Friedman, A.H.; Friedman, H.; Gallia, G.L.; Giovanella, B.C.; Grollman, A.P.; He, T.C.; He, Y.; Hruban, R.H.; Jallo, G.I.; Mandahl, N.; Meeker, A.K.; Mertens, F.; Netto, G.J.; Rasheed, B.A.; Riggins, G.J.; Rosenquist, T.A.; Schiffman, M.; Shih Ie, M.; Theodorescu, D.; Torbenson, M.S.; Velculescu, V.E.; Wang, T.L.; Wentzensen, N.; Wood, L.D.; Zhang, M.; McLendon, R.E.; Bigner, D.D.; Kinzler, K.W.; Vogelstein, B.; Papadopoulos, N.; Yan, H. TERT promoter mutations occur frequently in gliomas and a subset of tumors derived from cells with low rates of self-renewal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2013, 110(15), 6021-6026.
[16]
Noushmehr, H.; Weisenberger, D.J.; Diefes, K.; Phillips, H.S.; Pujara, K.; Berman, B.P.; Pan, F.; Pelloski, C.E.; Sulman, E.P.; Bhat, K.P.; Verhaak, R.G.; Hoadley, K.A.; Hayes, D.N.; Perou, C.M.; Schmidt, H.K.; Ding, L.; Wilson, R.K.; Van Den Berg, D.; Shen, H.; Bengtsson, H.; Neuvial, P.; Cope, L.M.; Buckley, J.; Herman, J.G.; Baylin, S.B.; Laird, P.W.; Aldape, K. Identification of a CpG island methylator phenotype that defines a distinct subgroup of glioma. Cancer Cell, 2010, 17(5), 510-522.
[17]
Fujisawa, H.; Reis, R.M.; Nakamura, M.; Colella, S.; Yonekawa, Y.; Kleihues, P.; Ohgaki, H. Loss of heterozygosity on chromosome 10 is more extensive in primary (de novo) than in secondary glioblastomas. Lab. Invest., 2000, 80(1), 65-72.
[18]
Horbinski, C.; Nikiforova, M.N.; Hobbs, J.; Bortoluzzi, S.; Cieply, K.; Dacic, S.; Hamilton, R.L. The importance of 10q status in an outcomes-based comparison between 1p/19q fluorescence in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction-based microsatellite loss of heterozygosity analysis of oligodendrogliomas. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 2012, 71(1), 73-82.
[19]
Yan, H.; Parsons, D.W.; Jin, G.; McLendon, R.; Rasheed, B.A.; Yuan, W.; Kos, I.; Batinic-Haberle, I.; Jones, S.; Riggins, G.J.; Friedman, H.; Friedman, A.; Reardon, D.; Herndon, J.; Kinzler, K.W.; Velculescu, V.E.; Vogelstein, B.; Bigner, D.D. IDH1 and IDH2 mutations in gliomas. N. Engl. J. Med., 2009, 360(8), 765-773.
[20]
Parsons, D.W.; Jones, S.; Zhang, X.; Lin, J.C.; Leary, R.J.; Angenendt, P.; Mankoo, P.; Carter, H.; Siu, I.M.; Gallia, G.L.; Olivi, A.; McLendon, R.; Rasheed, B.A.; Keir, S.; Nikolskaya, T.; Nikolsky, Y.; Busam, D.A.; Tekleab, H.; Diaz, L.A., Jr; Hartigan, J. Smith, D.R.; Strausberg, R.L.; Marie, S.K.; Shinjo, S.M.; Yan, H.; Riggins, G.J.; Bigner, D.D.; Karchin, R.; Papadopoulos, N.; Parmigiani, G.; Vogelstein, B.; Velculescu, V.E.; Kinzler, K.W. An integrated genomic analysis of human glioblastoma multiforme. Science, 2008, 321(5897), 1807-1812.
[21]
Bleeker, F.E.; Lamba, S.; Leenstra, S.; Troost, D.; Hulsebos, T.; Vandertop, W.P.; Frattini, M.; Molinari, F.; Knowles, M.; Cerrato, A.; Rodolfo, M.; Scarpa, A.; Felicioni, L.; Buttitta, F.; Malatesta, S.; Marchetti, A.; Bardelli, A. IDH1 mutations at residue p.R132 (IDH1(R132)) occur frequently in high-grade gliomas but not in other solid tumors. Hum. Mutat., 2009, 30(1), 7-11.
[22]
Kil, I.S.; Kim, S.Y.; Lee, S.J.; Park, J.W. Small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of mitochondrial NADP+-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase enhances the sensitivity of HeLa cells toward tumor necrosis factor-alpha and anticancer drugs. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 2007, 43(8), 1197-1207.
[23]
Okita, Y.; Narita, Y.; Miyakita, Y.; Ohno, M.; Matsushita, Y.; Fukushima, S.; Sumi, M.; Ichimura, K.; Kayama, T.; Shibui, S. IDH1/2 mutation is a prognostic marker for survival and predicts response to chemotherapy for grade II gliomas concomitantly treated with radiation therapy. Int. J. Oncol., 2012, 41(4), 1325-1336.
[24]
Zhao, S.; Lin, Y.; Xu, W.; Jiang, W.; Zha, Z.; Wang, P.; Yu, W.; Li, Z.; Gong, L.; Peng, Y.; Ding, J.; Lei, Q.; Guan, K.L.; Xiong, Y. Glioma-derived mutations in IDH1 dominantly inhibit IDH1 catalytic activity and induce HIF-1alpha. Science, 2009, 324(5924), 261-265.
[25]
Mao, X.G.; Xue, X.Y.; Wang, L.; Zhang, X.; Yan, M.; Tu, Y.Y.; Lin, W.; Jiang, X.F.; Ren, H.G.; Zhang, W.; Song, S.J. CDH5 is specifically activated in glioblastoma stem like cells and contributes to vasculogenic mimicry induced by hypoxia. Neuro-oncol., 2013, 15(7), 865-879.
[26]
Marampon, F.; Gravina, G.L.; Zani, B.M.; Popov, V.M.; Fratticci, A.; Cerasani, M.; Di Genova, D.; Mancini, M.; Ciccarelli, C.; Ficorella, C.; Di Cesare, E.; Festuccia, C. Hypoxia sustains glioblastoma radioresistance through ERKs/DNA-PKcs/HIF-1alpha functional interplay. Int. J. Oncol., 2014, 44(6), 2121-2131.
[27]
Lee, S.M.; Koh, H.J.; Park, D.C.; Song, B.J.; Huh, T.L.; Park, J.W. Cytosolic NADP(+)-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase status modulates oxidative damage to cells. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 2002, 32(11), 1185-1196.
[28]
Dolecek, T.A.; Propp, J.M.; Stroup, N.E.; Kruchko, C. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2005-2009. Neuro-oncol., 2012, 14(Suppl. 5), v1-v49.
[29]
Huse, J.T.; Aldape, K.D. The molecular landscape of diffuse glioma and prospects for biomarker development. Expert Opin. Med. Diagn., 2013, 7(6), 573-587.
[30]
Herman, S.T. Epilepsy after brain insult: targeting epileptogenesis. Neurology, 2002, 59(9)(Suppl. 5), S21-S26.
[31]
Glantz, M.J.; Cole, B.F.; Forsyth, P.A.; Recht, L.D.; Wen, P.Y.; Chamberlain, M.C.; Grossman, S.A.; Cairncross, J.G. Practice parameter: anticonvulsant prophylaxis in patients with newly diagnosed brain tumors. report of the quality standards subcommittee of the American academy of neurology. Neurology, 2000, 54(10), 1886-1893.
[34]
Housni, A.; Boujraf, S. Multimodal magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis and therapeutical follow-up of brain tumors. Neurosciences, 2013, 18(1), 3-10.
[35]
Wen, P.Y.; Schiff, D.; Kesari, S.; Drappatz, J.; Gigas, D.C.; Doherty, L. Medical management of patients with brain tumors. J. Neurooncol., 2006, 80(3), 313-332.
[36]
Sanai, N.; Berger, M.S. Extent of resection influences outcomes for patients with gliomas. Rev. Neurol., 2011, 167(10), 648-654.
[37]
Lacroix, M.; Abi-Said, D.; Fourney, D.R.; Gokaslan, Z.L.; Shi, W.; DeMonte, F.; Lang, F.F.; McCutcheon, I.E.; Hassenbusch, S.J.; Holland, E.; Hess, K.; Michael, C.; Miller, D.; Sawaya, R. A multivariate analysis of 416 patients with glioblastoma multiforme: prognosis, extent of resection, and survival. J. Neurosurg., 2001, 95(2), 190-198.
[38]
Stummer, W.; Pichlmeier, U.; Meinel, T.; Wiestler, O.D.; Zanella, F.; Reulen, H.J. Fluorescence-guided surgery with 5-aminolevulinic acid for resection of malignant glioma: a randomised controlled multicentre phase III trial. Lancet Oncol., 2006, 7(5), 392-401.
[39]
Asthagiri, A.R.; Pouratian, N.; Sherman, J.; Ahmed, G.; Shaffrey, M.E. Advances in brain tumor surgery. Neurol. Clin., 2007, 25(4), 975-1003. [viii-ix.].
[40]
Brastianos, P.K.; Batchelor, T.T. Vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors in malignant gliomas. Target. Oncol., 2010, 5(3), 167-174.
[41]
Balana, C.; Gil, M.J.; Perez, P.; Reynes, G.; Gallego, O.; Ribalta, T.; Capellades, J.; Gonzalez, S.; Verger, E. Sunitinib administered prior to radiotherapy in patients with non-resectable glioblastoma: results of a Phase II study. Target. Oncol., 2014, 9(4), 321-329.
[42]
Caruso, C.; Carcaterra, M.; Donato, V. Role of radiotherapy for high grade gliomas management. J. Neurosurg. Sci., 2013, 57(2), 163-169.
[43]
Reardon, D.A.; Quinn, J.A.; Vredenburgh, J.; Rich, J.N.; Gururangan, S.; Badruddoja, M.; Herndon, J.E., II; Dowell, J.M.; Friedman, A.H.; Friedman, H.S. Phase II trial of irinotecan plus celecoxib in adults with recurrent malignant glioma. Cancer, 2005, 103(2), 329-338.
[44]
Franceschi, E.; Cavallo, G.; Scopece, L.; Paioli, A.; Pession, A.; Magrini, E.; Conforti, R.; Palmerini, E.; Bartolini, S.; Rimondini, S.; Esposti, R.D.; Crino, L. Phase II trial of carboplatin and etoposide for patients with recurrent high-grade glioma. Br. J. Cancer, 2004, 91(6), 1038-1044.
[45]
Barr, J.G.; Grundy, P.L. The effects of the NICE technology appraisal 121 (gliadel and temozolomide) on survival in high-grade glioma. Br. J. Neurosurg., 2012, 26(6), 818-822.
[46]
Roldan Urgoiti, G.B.; Singh, A.D.; Easaw, J.C. Extended adjuvant temozolomide for treatment of newly diagnosed glioblastoma multiforme. J. Neurooncol., 2012, 108(1), 173-177.
[47]
Juratli, T.A.; Schackert, G.; Krex, D. Current status of local therapy in malignant gliomas - A clinical review of three selected approaches. Pharmacol. Ther., 2013, 139(3), 341-358.
[48]
Brem, H.; Piantadosi, S.; Burger, P.C.; Walker, M.; Selker, R.; Vick, N.A.; Black, K.; Sisti, M.; Brem, S.; Mohr, G. Placebo-controlled trial of safety and efficacy of intraoperative controlled delivery by biodegradable polymers of chemotherapy for recurrent gliomas. The Polymer-brain Tumor Treatment Group. Lancet, 1995, 345(8956), 1008-1012.
[49]
Newton, H.B. Intra-arterial chemotherapy of primary brain tumors. Curr. Treat. Options Oncol., 2005, 6(6), 519-530.
[50]
French, J.D.; West, P.M.; Von Amerongen, F.K.; Magoun, H.W. Effects of intracarotid administration of nitrogen mustard on normal brain and brain tumors. J. Neurosurg., 1952, 9(4), 378-389.
[51]
Klopp, C.T.; Alford, T.C.; Bateman, J.; Berry, G.N.; Winship, T. Fractionated intra-arterial cancer; chemotherapy with methyl bis amine hydrochloride; a preliminary report. Ann. Surg., 1950, 132(4), 811-832.
[52]
Figueiredo, E.G.; Faria, J.W.; Teixeira, M.J. Treatment of recurrent glioblastoma with intra-arterial BCNU [1, 3-bis (2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea]. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 2010, 68(5), 778-782.
[53]
Shin, B.J.; Burkhardt, J.K.; Riina, H.A.; Boockvar, J.A. Superselective intra-arterial cerebral infusion of novel agents after blood-brain disruption for the treatment of recurrent glioblastoma multiforme: a technical case series. Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am., 2012, 23(2), 323-329. [ix-x.].
[54]
Salacz, M.E.; Watson, K.R.; Schomas, D.A. Glioblastoma. Part II: Future directions. Mol. Med., 2011, 108(4), 289-291.
[55]
Cloughesy, T.F.; Gobin, Y.P.; Black, K.L.; Vinuela, F.; Taft, F.; Kadkhoda, B.; Kabbinavar, F. Intra-arterial carboplatin chemotherapy for brain tumors: a dose escalation study based on cerebral blood flow. J. Neurooncol., 1997, 35(2), 121-131.
[56]
Wu, E. Editorial: discovering new anticancer activities from old drugs. Curr. Med. Chem., 2013, 20(30), 4093-4094.
[57]
Bidros, D.S.; Vogelbaum, M.A. Novel drug delivery strategies in neuro-oncology. Neurotherapeutics, 2009, 6(3), 539-546.
[58]
Burkhardt, J.K.; Riina, H.A.; Shin, B.J.; Moliterno, J.A.; Hofstetter, C.P.; Boockvar, J.A. Intra-arterial chemotherapy for malignant gliomas: a critical analysis. Interv. Neuroradiol., 2011, 17(3), 286-295.
[59]
Boockvar, J.A.; Tsiouris, A.J.; Hofstetter, C.P.; Kovanlikaya, I.; Fralin, S.; Kesavabhotla, K.; Seedial, S.M.; Pannullo, S.C.; Schwartz, T.H.; Stieg, P.; Zimmerman, R.D.; Knopman, J.; Scheff, R.J.; Christos, P.; Vallabhajosula, S.; Riina, H.A. Safety and maximum tolerated dose of superselective intraarterial cerebral infusion of bevacizumab after osmotic blood-brain barrier disruption for recurrent malignant glioma. Clinical article. J. Neurosurg., 2011, 114(3), 624-632.
[60]
Burkhardt, J.K.; Riina, H.; Shin, B.J.; Christos, P.; Kesavabhotla, K.; Hofstetter, C.P.; Tsiouris, A.J.; Boockvar, J.A. Intra-arterial delivery of bevacizumab after blood-brain barrier disruption for the treatment of recurrent glioblastoma: progression-free survival and overall survival. World Neurosurg., 2012, 77(1), 130-134.
[61]
Riina, H.A.; Knopman, J.; Greenfield, J.P.; Fralin, S.; Gobin, Y.P.; Tsiouris, A.J.; Souweidane, M.M.; Boockvar, J.A. Balloon-assisted superselective intra-arterial cerebral infusion of bevacizumab for malignant brainstem glioma. A technical note. Interv. Neuroradiol., 2010, 16(1), 71-76.
[62]
Ammaya, A.K. Subcutaneous reservoir and pump for sterile access to ventricular cerebrospinal fluid. Lancet, 1963, 2(7315), 983-984.
[63]
Buonerba, C.; Di Lorenzo, G.; Marinelli, A.; Federico, P.; Palmieri, G.; Imbimbo, M.; Conti, P.; Peluso, G.; De Placido, S.; Sampson, J.H. A comprehensive outlook on intracerebral therapy of malignant gliomas. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol., 2011, 80(1), 54-68.
[64]
Srikandarajah, N.; Patel, A.; Lee, M.K.; Brodbelt, A. Indications for intracranial reservoirs: A six-year study. Br. J. Neurosurg., 2014, 28(4), 475-477.
[65]
Walter, K.A.; Tamargo, R.J.; Olivi, A.; Burger, P.C.; Brem, H. Intratumoral chemotherapy. Neurosurgery, 1995, 37(6), 1128-1145.
[66]
Patchell, R.A.; Regine, W.F.; Ashton, P.; Tibbs, P.A.; Wilson, D.; Shappley, D.; Young, B. A phase I trial of continuously infused intratumoral bleomycin for the treatment of recurrent glioblastoma multiforme. J. Neurooncol., 2002, 60(1), 37-42.
[67]
Boiardi, A.; Silvani, A.; Eoli, M.; Lamperti, E.; Salmaggi, A.; Gaviani, P.; Fiumani, A.; Botturi, A.; Falcone, C.; Solari, A.; Filippini, G.; Di Meco, F.; Broggi, G. Treatment of recurrent glioblastoma: can local delivery of mitoxantrone improve survival? J. Neurooncol., 2008, 88(1), 105-113.
[68]
Dorner, L.; Ulmer, S.; Rohr, A.; Mehdorn, H.M.; Nabavi, A. Space-occupying cyst development in the resection cavity of malignant gliomas following Gliadel(R) implantation--incidence, therapeutic strategies, and outcome. J. Clin. Neurosci., 2011, 18(3), 347-351.
[69]
Zhang, S.; Xie, R.; Zhao, T.; Yang, X.; Han, L.; Ye, F.; Lei, T.; Wan, F. Neural stem cells preferentially migrate to glioma stem cells and reduce their stemness phenotypes. Int. J. Oncol., 2014, 45(5), 1989-1996.
[70]
Gutova, M.; Frank, J.A.; D’Apuzzo, M.; Khankaldyyan, V.; Gilchrist, M.M.; Annala, A.J.; Metz, M.Z.; Abramyants, Y.; Herrmann, K.A.; Ghoda, L.Y.; Najbauer, J.; Brown, C.E.; Blanchard, M.S.; Lesniak, M.S.; Kim, S.U.; Barish, M.E.; Aboody, K.S.; Moats, R.A. Magnetic resonance imaging tracking of ferumoxytol-labeled human neural stem cells: studies leading to clinical use. Stem Cells Transl. Med., 2013, 2(10), 766-775.
[71]
Allhenn, D.; Boushehri, M.A.; Lamprecht, A. Drug delivery strategies for the treatment of malignant gliomas. Int. J. Pharm., 2012, 436(1-2), 299-310.
[72]
Westphal, M.; Hilt, D.C.; Bortey, E.; Delavault, P.; Olivares, R.; Warnke, P.C.; Whittle, I.R.; Jaaskelainen, J.; Ram, Z. A phase 3 trial of local chemotherapy with biodegradable carmustine (BCNU) wafers (Gliadel wafers) in patients with primary malignant glioma. Neuro-oncol., 2003, 5(2), 79-88.
[73]
Nagpal, S. The role of BCNU polymer wafers (Gliadel) in the treatment of malignant glioma. Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am., 2012, 23(2), 289-295. [ix.].
[74]
Butt, A.M.; Jones, H.C.; Abbott, N.J. Electrical resistance across the blood-brain barrier in anaesthetized rats: a developmental study. J. Physiol., 1990, 429, 47-62.
[75]
Arifin, D.Y.; Lee, K.Y.; Wang, C.H.; Smith, K.A. Role of convective flow in carmustine delivery to a brain tumor. Pharm. Res., 2009, 26(10), 2289-2302.
[76]
Fung, L.K.; Ewend, M.G.; Sills, A.; Sipos, E.P.; Thompson, R.; Watts, M.; Colvin, O.M.; Brem, H.; Saltzman, W.M. Pharmacokinetics of interstitial delivery of carmustine, 4-hydropero-xycyclophosphamide, and paclitaxel from a biodegradable polymer implant in the monkey brain. Cancer Res., 1998, 58(4), 672-684.
[77]
Dorner, L.; Mustafa, A.; Rohr, A.; Mehdorn, H.M.; Nabavi, A. Growth pattern of tumor recurrence following bis-chloroethylnitrosourea (BCNU) wafer implantation in malignant glioma. J. Clin. Neurosci., 2013, 20(3), 429-434.
[78]
Panigrahi, M.; Das, P.K.; Parikh, P.M. Brain tumor and Gliadel wafer treatment. Indian J. Cancer, 2011, 48(1), 11-17.
[79]
Hart, M.G.; Grant, R.; Garside, R.; Rogers, G.; Somerville, M.; Stein, K. Chemotherapy wafers for high grade glioma. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2011, 3, CD007294.
Related Books
Frontiers in Clinical Drug Research - Anti-Cancer Agents
NEOPLASIA and FERTILITY
Breast Cancer: Current Trends in Molecular Research
The Evolution of Radionanotargeting towards Clinical Precision Oncology: A Festschrift in Honor of Kalevi Kairemo
Nanotherapeutics for the Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma
Topics in Anti-Cancer Research
Frontiers in Clinical Drug Research - Anti-Cancer Agents
Modern Cancer Therapies and Traditional Medicine: An Integrative Approach to Combat Cancers
Herbal Medicine: Back to the Future
Thrombosis in Cancer: A Medical Professional's Guide to Cancer Associated Thrombosis
Article Metrics
76
12