Breathomics Detect the Cardiovascular Disease: Delusion or Dilution of
the Metabolomic Signature

Basheer      Marzoog
doi:10.2174/011573403X283768240124065853
Abstract

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can be subdivided into exogenous and endogenous categories based on their origin. Analyzing the endogenous VOCs can provide insights into maintaining the internal organs' homeostasis. Despite the ongoing development and the current understanding, studies have suggested a link between cardiovascular metabolic alterations in patients with ischemic heart disease and elevated levels of ethane and isoprene detectable through exhaled breath analysis. Conversely, patients with chronic heart failure exhibit elevated acetone and pentane in their exhaled air. These substances originate from disturbances in the heart tissue, including cellular and subcellular modulations. Hypothetically, ethane levels in the exhaled breath analysis can demonstrate the severity of ischemic heart disease and, consequently, the risk of death in the next 10 years due to cardiovascular disease (CVD). Real-time direct mass spectrometry is the preferred method for assessing VOCs in exhaled breath analysis. The accuracy of this analysis depends on several factors, including the selection of the relevant breath fraction, the type of breath collection container (if used), and the pre-concentration technique.
[1]
Pereira J, Porto-Figueira P, Cavaco C, et al. Breath analysis as a potential and non-invasive frontier in disease diagnosis: an overview. Metabolites  2015; 5(1): 3-55.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo5010003] [PMID: 25584743]

[2]
Hageman S, Pennells L, Ojeda F, et al. SCORE2 risk prediction algorithms: New models to estimate 10-year risk of cardiovascular disease in Europe Eur Heart J 2021; 42: 2439-54.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab309]

[3]
Murray KK, Boyd RK, Eberlin MN, Langley GJ, Li L, Naito Y. Definitions of terms relating to mass spectrometry (IUPAC Recommendations 2013). Pure Appl Chem  2013; 85(7): 1515-609.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REC-06-04-06]

[4]
Trefz P, Obermeier J, Lehbrink R, Schubert JK, Miekisch W, Fischer DC. Exhaled volatile substances in children suffering from type 1 diabetes mellitus: Results from a cross-sectional study. Sci Rep  2019; 9(1): 15707.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52165-x] [PMID: 31673076]

[5]
van de Kant KDG, van der Sande LJTM, Jöbsis Q, van Schayck OCP, Dompeling E. Clinical use of exhaled volatile organic compounds in pulmonary diseases: A systematic review. Respir Res  2012; 13(1): 117.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-13-117] [PMID: 23259710]

[6]
Amal H, Leja M, Funka K, et al. Breath testing as potential colorectal cancer screening tool. Int J Cancer  2016; 138(1): 229-36.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.29701] [PMID: 26212114]

[7]
Chapman EA, Baker J, Aggarwal P, et al. GC-MS techniques investigating potential biomarkers of dying in the last weeks with lung cancer. Int J Mol Sci  2023; 24(2): 1591.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms24021591] [PMID: 36675106]

[8]
Chung J, Akter S, Han S, et al. Diagnosis by volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath from patients with gastric and colorectal cancers. Int J Mol Sci  2022; 24(1): 129.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010129] [PMID: 36613569]

[9]
Sukaram T, Tansawat R, Apiparakoon T, et al. Exhaled volatile organic compounds for diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. Sci Rep  2022; 12(1): 5326.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08678-z] [PMID: 35351916]

[10]
Politi L, Monasta L, Rigressi MN, et al. Discriminant profiles of volatile compounds in the alveolar air of patients with squamous cell lung cancer, lung adenocarcinoma or colon cancer. Molecules  2021; 26(3): 550.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26030550] [PMID: 33494458]

[11]
Di Gilio A, Catino A, Lombardi A, et al. Breath analysis for early detection of malignant pleural mesothelioma: Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) determination and possible biochemical pathways. Cancers  2020; 12(5): 1262.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers12051262] [PMID: 32429446]

[12]
Catino A, de Gennaro G, Di Gilio A, et al. Breath analysis: A systematic review of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in diagnostic and therapeutic management of pleural mesothelioma. Cancers  2019; 11(6): 831.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers11060831] [PMID: 31207975]

[13]
Rodrigues D, Pinto J, Araújo AM, et al. Volatile metabolomic signature of bladder cancer cell lines based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Metabolomics  2018; 14(5): 62.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11306-018-1361-9] [PMID: 30830384]

[14]
Princivalle A, Monasta L, Butturini G, Bassi C, Perbellini L. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma can be detected by analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in alveolar air. BMC Cancer  2018; 18(1): 529.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12885-018-4452-0] [PMID: 29728093]

[15]
Chin ST, Romano A, Doran SLF, Hanna GB. Cross-platform mass spectrometry annotation in breathomics of oesophageal-gastric cancer. Sci Rep  2018; 8(1): 5139.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22890-w] [PMID: 29572531]

[16]
Brekelmans MP, Fens N, Brinkman P, et al. Smelling the diagnosis: The electronic nose as diagnostic tool in inflammatory arthritis. A case-reference study. PLoS One  2016; 11(3): e0151715.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151715] [PMID: 26982569]

[17]
DeLano FA, Chow J, Schmid-Schönbein GW. Volatile decay products in breath during peritonitis shock are attenuated by enteral blockade of pancreatic digestive proteases. Shock  2017; 48(5): 571-5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SHK.0000000000000888] [PMID: 28498300]

[18]
Krilaviciute A, Heiss JA, Leja M, Kupcinskas J, Haick H, Brenner H. Detection of cancer through exhaled breath: A systematic review. Oncotarget  2015; 6(36): 38643-57.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.5938] [PMID: 26440312]

[19]
Hanna GB, Boshier PR, Markar SR, Romano A. Accuracy and methodologic challenges of volatile organic compound-based exhaled breath tests for cancer diagnosis. JAMA Oncol  2019; 5(1): e182815.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2018.2815] [PMID: 30128487]

[20]
Gruber M, Tisch U, Jeries R, et al. Analysis of exhaled breath for diagnosing head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: A feasibility study. Br J Cancer  2014; 111(4): 790-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2014.361] [PMID: 24983369]

[21]
Bajtarevic A, Ager C, Pienz M, et al. Noninvasive detection of lung cancer by analysis of exhaled breath. BMC Cancer  2009; 9(1): 348.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-9-348] [PMID: 19788722]

[22]
Xu Z, Broza YY, Ionsecu R, et al. A nanomaterial-based breath test for distinguishing gastric cancer from benign gastric conditions. Br J Cancer  2013; 108(4): 941-50.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2013.44] [PMID: 23462808]

[23]
Peled N, Hakim M, Bunn PA Jr, et al. Non-invasive breath analysis of pulmonary nodules. J Thorac Oncol  2012; 7(10): 1528-33.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JTO.0b013e3182637d5f] [PMID: 22929969]

[24]
Ionescu R, Broza Y, Shaltieli H, et al. Detection of multiple sclerosis from exhaled breath using bilayers of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and single-wall carbon nanotubes. ACS Chem Neurosci  2011; 2(12): 687-93.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cn2000603] [PMID: 22860162]

[25]
Buszewski B, Ligor T, Jezierski T, Wenda-Piesik A, Walczak M, Rudnicka J. Identification of volatile lung cancer markers by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: Comparison with discrimination by canines. Anal Bioanal Chem  2012; 404(1): 141-6.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-012-6102-8] [PMID: 22660158]

[26]
Stott S, Broza YY, Gharra A, Wang Z, Barker RA, Haick H. The utility of breath analysis in the diagnosis and staging of parkinson’s disease. J Parkinsons Dis  2022; 12(3): 993-1002.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JPD-213133] [PMID: 35147553]

[27]
Marcondes-Braga FG, Gioli-Pereira L, Bernardez-Pereira S, et al. Exhaled breath acetone for predicting cardiac and overall mortality in chronic heart failure patients. ESC Heart Fail  2020; 7(4): 1744-52.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.12736] [PMID: 32383349]

[28]
Marcondes-Braga FG, Batista GL, Bacal F, Gutz I. Exhaled breath analysis in heart failure. Curr Heart Fail Rep  2016; 13(4): 166-71.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11897-016-0294-8] [PMID: 27287200]

[29]
Bykova AA, Malinovskaya LK, Chomakhidze PS, et al. Exhaled breath analysis in diagnostics of cardiovascular diseases. Kardiologiia  2019; 59(7): 61-7.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.18087/cardio.2019.7.10263] [PMID: 31322091]

[30]
Bykova AA, Malinovskaya LK, Trushina OV, et al. Exhaled breath analysis in diagnosis of chronic heart failure with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction. Cardiology and cardiovascular surgery  2019; 12(6): 568-76.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.17116/kardio201912061568]

[31]
Marcondes-Braga FG, Batista GL, Gutz IGR, et al. Impact of exhaled breath acetone in the prognosis of patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). PLoS One  2016; 11(12): e0168790.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168790] [PMID: 28030609]

[32]
Malinovskaya LK, Bykova AA, Chomahidze PSH, Kopylov PHYU, Syrkin AL, Betelin VB. P3758Exhaled breath analysis in the differential diagnostics of heart failure. Eur Heart J  2018; 39(Suppl. 1)
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehy563.P3758]

[33]
Biagini D, Lomonaco T, Ghimenti S, et al. Determination of volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath of heart failure patients by needle trap micro-extraction coupled with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Breath Res  2017; 11(4): 047110.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1752-7163/aa94e7] [PMID: 29052557]

[34]
Yokokawa T, Sato T, Suzuki S, et al. Elevated exhaled acetone concentration in stage C heart failure patients with diabetes mellitus. BMC Cardiovasc Disord  2017; 17(1): 280.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12872-017-0713-0] [PMID: 29145814]

[35]
Yokokawa T, Sato T, Suzuki S, et al. Change of exhaled acetone concentration levels in patients with acute decompensated heart failure a preliminary study. Int Heart J  2018; 59(4): 808-12.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1536/ihj.17-482] [PMID: 29794390]

[36]
Zhou Q, Wang Q, Chen B, et al. Factors influencing breath analysis results in patients with diabetes mellitus. J Breath Res  2019; 13(4): 046012.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1752-7163/ab285a] [PMID: 31489846]

[37]
Broza YY, Khatib S, Gharra A, et al. Screening for gastric cancer using exhaled breath samples. Br J Surg  2019; 106(9): 1122-5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.11294] [PMID: 31259390]

[38]
Wang MH, Yuk-Fai Lau S, Chong KC, et al. Estimation of clinical parameters of chronic kidney disease by exhaled breath full-scan mass spectrometry data and iterative PCA with intensity screening algorithm. J Breath Res  2017; 11(3): 036007.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1752-7163/aa7635] [PMID: 28566556]

[39]
Zeng Q, Li P, Cai Y, et al. Detection of creatinine in exhaled breath of humans with chronic kidney disease by extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. J Breath Res  2016; 10(1): 016008.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/10/1/016008] [PMID: 26857588]

[40]
Badjagbo K. Exhaled breath analysis for early cancer detection: principle and progress in direct mass spectrometry techniques. Clin Chem Lab Med  2012; 50(11): 1893-902.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cclm-2012-0208] [PMID: 22718640]

[41]
Chan MJ, Li YJ, Wu CC, et al. Breath ammonia is a useful biomarker predicting kidney function in chronic kidney disease patients. Biomedicines  2020; 8(11): 468.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8110468] [PMID: 33142890]

[42]
Rodríguez-Aguilar M, Ramírez-García S, Ilizaliturri-Hernández C, et al. Ultrafast gas chromatography coupled to electronic nose to identify volatile biomarkers in exhaled breath from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients: A pilot study. Biomed Chromatogr  2019; 33(12): e4684.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bmc.4684] [PMID: 31423612]

[43]
Filipiak W, Ruzsanyi V, Mochalski P, et al. Dependence of exhaled breath composition on exogenous factors, smoking habits and exposure to air pollutants. J Breath Res  2012; 6(3): 036008.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/6/3/036008] [PMID: 22932429]

[44]
Lawal O, Ahmed WM, Nijsen TME, Goodacre R, Fowler SJ. Exhaled breath analysis: A review of ‘breath-taking’ methods for off-line analysis. Metabolomics  2017; 13(10): 110.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11306-017-1241-8] [PMID: 28867989]

[45]
Tsao CW, Aday AW, Almarzooq ZI, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2023 update: A report from the american heart association. Circulation  2023; 147(8): e93-e621.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001123] [PMID: 36695182]

[46]
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)   Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cardiovascular-diseases-(cvds)

[47]
Marzoog BA, Vlasova TI. Myocardiocyte autophagy in the context of myocardiocytes regeneration: A potential novel therapeutic strategy. Egypt J Med Hum Genet  2022; 23(1): 41.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s43042-022-00250-8]

[48]
Marzoog BA. Autophagy behavior in post-myocardial infarction injury. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets  2023; 23(1): 2-10.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1871529X23666230503123612] [PMID: 37138481]

[49]
Marzoog BA. Drug Targets 2024.

[50]
Abdullah Marzoog B. Pathophysiology of cardiac cell injury in post-covid-19 syndrome. Emir Med J  2023; 4(2): e280423216351.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0250688204666230428120808]

[51]
Marzoog BA. Systemic and local hypothermia in the context of cell regeneration. Cryo Lett  2022; 43(2): 66-73.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.54680/fr22210110112] [PMID: 36626147]

[52]
Marzoog BA. Tree of life: Endothelial cell in norm and disease, the good guy is a partner in crime! Anat Cell Biol  2023; 56(2): 166-78.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.5115/acb.22.190] [PMID: 36879408]

[53]
Abdullah Marzoog B. Cell physiological behavior in the context of local hypothermia. Emir Med J  2023; 5: e100723218576.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0250688204666230710102624]

[54]
Abdullah Marzoog B. Autophagy behavior under local hypothermia in myocardiocytes injury. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem  2023; 21.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1871525721666230803102554] [PMID: 37534483]

[55]
Marzoog BA. Review article: Autophagy behavior in endothelial cell regeneration. Curr Aging Sci  2023; 16.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0118746098260689231002044435] [PMID: 37861048]

[56]
Marzoog BA. Endothelial dysfunction under the scope of arterial hypertension, coronary heart disease, and diabetes mellitus using the angioscan. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem  2023; 22.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0118715257246589231018053646] [PMID: 37921186]

[57]
Abdullah Marzoog B. Adaptive and compensatory mechanisms of the cardiovascular system and disease risk factors in young males and females. Emir Med J  2023; 4(1): e281122211293.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/04666221128110145]

[58]
Marzoog BA. Autophagy in endothrlial cell dysfunction. Curr Mol Med 2022.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0118715257275690231129101408]

[59]
Marzoog BA, Vlasova TI. Membrane lipids under norm and pathology. Eur J Clin Exp Med  2021; 19(1): 59-75.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2021.1.9]

[60]
Abdullah Marzoog B. Caveolae’s behavior in norm and pathology. Emir Med J  2023; 4(2): e080523216639.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0250688204666230508112229]

[61]
Zuurbier CJ, Bertrand L, Beauloye CR, et al. Cardiac metabolism as a driver and therapeutic target of myocardial infarction. J Cell Mol Med  2020; 24(11): 5937-54.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.15180] [PMID: 32384583]

[62]
Marzoog BA, Averina D. Nicotinamide mononucleotide in the context of myocardiocyte longevity. Curr Aging Sci  2023; 17.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0118746098266041231212105020] [PMID: 38151845]

[63]
Gaugg MT, Nussbaumer-Ochsner Y, Bregy L, et al. Real-time breath analysis reveals specific metabolic signatures of COPD exacerbations. Chest  2019; 156(2): 269-76.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2018.12.023] [PMID: 30685334]

[64]
Buszewski B, Kęsy M, Ligor T, Amann A. Human exhaled air analytics: Biomarkers of diseases. Biomed Chromatogr  2007; 21(6): 553-66.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bmc.835] [PMID: 17431933]

[65]
Mochalski P, King J, Klieber M, et al. Blood and breath levels of selected volatile organic compounds in healthy volunteers. Analyst  2013; 138(7): 2134-45.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3an36756h] [PMID: 23435188]

[66]
Huang J, Kumar S, Hanna GB. Investigation of C3-C10 aldehydes in the exhaled breath of healthy subjects using selected ion flow tube-mass spectrometry (SIFT-MS). J Breath Res  2014; 8(3): 037104.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1752-7155/8/3/037104] [PMID: 25190002]

[67]
Belluomo I, Boshier PR, Myridakis A, et al. Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry for targeted analysis of volatile organic compounds in human breath. Nat Protoc  2021; 16(7): 3419-38.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41596-021-00542-0] [PMID: 34089020]

[68]
Bruderer T, Gaisl T, Gaugg MT, et al. On-line analysis of exhaled breath: Focus review. Chem Rev  2019; 119(19): 10803-28.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00005] [PMID: 31594311]

[69]
Wallace MAG, Pleil JD. Evolution of clinical and environmental health applications of exhaled breath research: Review of methods and instrumentation for gas-phase, condensate, and aerosols. Anal Chim Acta  2018; 1024: 18-38.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2018.01.069] [PMID: 29776545]

[70]
Di Gilio A, Palmisani J, Ventrella G, et al. Breath analysis: Comparison among methodological approaches for breath sampling. Molecules  2020; 25(24): 5823.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25245823] [PMID: 33321824]

[71]
Boots AW, Bos LD, van der Schee MP, van Schooten FJ, Sterk PJ. Exhaled molecular fingerprinting in diagnosis and monitoring: Validating volatile promises. Trends Mol Med  2015; 21(10): 633-44.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2015.08.001] [PMID: 26432020]

[72]
Hauschild AC, Schneider T, Pauling J, et al. Computational methods for metabolomic data analysis of ion mobility spectrometry data-reviewing the state of the art. Metabolites  2012; 2(4): 733-55.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo2040733] [PMID: 24957760]

[73]
Zemek PG. Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry (PTRMS) for Ambient and (Compliance) Source Testing Discussion A draft ASTM method is also being developed  n.d.

[74]
Weraduwage SM, Rasulov B, Sahu A, Niinemets Ü, Sharkey TD. Isoprene measurements to assess plant hydrocarbon emissions and the methylerythritol pathway. Methods Enzymol  2022; 676: 211-37.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.mie.2022.07.020] [PMID: 36280351]

[75]
Zhang X, Frankevich V, Ding J, Ma Y, Chingin K, Chen H. Direct mass spectrometry analysis of exhaled human breath in real‐time. Mass Spectrom Rev  2023; mas.21855.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mas.21855] [PMID: 37565588]

[76]
Španěl P, Smith D. Progress in SIFT‐MS: Breath analysis and other applications. Mass Spectrom Rev  2011; 30(2): 236-67.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mas.20303] [PMID: 20648679]

[77]
Westphal K, Dudzik D, Waszczuk-Jankowska M, Graff B, Narkiewicz K, Markuszewski MJ. Common strategies and factors affecting off-line breath sampling and volatile organic compounds analysis using thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS). Metabolites  2022; 13(1): 8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo13010008] [PMID: 36676933]

[78]
Majchrzak T, Wojnowski W, Lubinska-Szczygeł M, Różańska A, Namieśnik J, Dymerski T. PTR-MS and GC-MS as complementary techniques for analysis of volatiles: A tutorial review. Anal Chim Acta  2018; 1035: 1-13.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2018.06.056] [PMID: 30224127]

[79]
Tranchida PQ, Franchina FA, Dugo P, Mondello L. Comprehensive two‐dimensional gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry: Recent evolution and current trends. Mass Spectrom Rev  2016; 35(4): 524-34.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mas.21443] [PMID: 25269651]

[80]
King J, Koc H, Unterkofler K, et al. Physiological Modeling for Analysis of Exhaled Breath.  Volatile Biomarkers 2013; pp. 26-46.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-44-462613-4.00003-9]

[81]
Böhme DK. Ion-molecule reactions in mass spectrometry. Encycl Spectrosc Spectrom  2016; 338-46.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409547-2.10996-5]

[82]
Marcondes-Braga FG, Gutz IGR, Batista GL, et al. Exhaled acetone as a new biomaker of heart failure severity. Chest  2012; 142(2): 457-66.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.11-2892] [PMID: 22345382]

[83]
Samara MA, Tang WHW, Cikach F Jr, et al. Single exhaled breath metabolomic analysis identifies unique breathprint in patients with acute decompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol  2013; 61(13): 1463-4.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2012.12.033] [PMID: 23500243]

[84]
Cikach FS Jr, Dweik RA. Cardiovascular biomarkers in exhaled breath. Prog Cardiovasc Dis  2012; 55(1): 34-43.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2012.05.005] [PMID: 22824108]

[85]
Risby T. F.T.-O. engineering, undefined 2010, Current status of midinfrared quantum and interband cascade lasers for clinical breath analysis, Spiedigitallibrary. OrgTH Risby, FK TittelOptical Eng  Available from: https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/Optical-Engineering/volume-49/issue-11/111123/Current-status-of-midinfrared-quantum-and-interband-cascade-lasers-for/10.1117/1.3498768.short (accessed September 4, 2023)

[86]
Nardi Agmon I, Broza YY, Alaa G, et al. Detecting coronary artery disease using exhaled breath analysis. Cardiology  2022; 147(4): 389-97.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000525688] [PMID: 35820369]

[87]
Pappas LK, Giannopoulos G, Loukides S, et al. Exhaled breath condensate in acute and chronic heart failure: New insights into the role of lung injury and barrier dysfunction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med  2014; 190(3): 342-5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201402-0272LE] [PMID: 25084262]

[88]
Pappas L, Filippatos G. Pulmonary congestion in acute heart failure: From hemodynamics to lung injury and barrier dysfunction. Rev Esp Cardiol  2011; 64(9): 735-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.recesp.2011.05.006] [PMID: 21775041]

[89]
Schuster A, Thakur A, Wang Z, Borowski AG, Thomas JD, Tang WHW. Increased exhaled nitric oxide levels after exercise in patients with chronic systolic heart failure with pulmonary venous hypertension. J Card Fail  2012; 18(10): 799-803.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cardfail.2012.08.356] [PMID: 23040116]

[90]
Witt K, Fischer C, Reulecke S, et al. Electronic nose detects heart failure from exhaled breath. Biomed Eng / Biomed Tech  2013; 58(Suppl 1)
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bmt-2013-4145]

[91]
Agostoni P, Bussotti M. Exhaled nitric oxide and exercise performance in heart failure. Arch Physiol Biochem  2003; 111(4): 293-6.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/13813450312331337423] [PMID: 15764057]

[92]
Sola Martínez RA, Pastor Hernández JM, Lozano Terol G, et al. Data preprocessing workflow for exhaled breath analysis by GC/MS using open sources. Sci Rep  2020; 10(1): 22008.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79014-6] [PMID: 33319832]

[93]
Vlasova T. Organ lipid distress syndrome in the pathogenesis of the progression of surgical endotoxicosis. 2015.

[94]
Morita TCAB, Trés GFS, Criado RFJ, Sotto MN, Criado PR. Update on vasculitis: an overview and dermatological clues for clinical and histopathological diagnosis - part I. An Bras Dermatol  2020; 95(3): 355-71.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.abd.2020.01.003] [PMID: 32307202]

[95]
Raftery D. Mass spectrometry in metabolomics: Methods and protocols. Methods Mol Biol  2014; 1198: 333-53.  Available from: link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4939-1258-2%0A, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25270940%0A, http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC4319703 (accessed September 2, 2023)

[96]
Sutaria SR, Gori SS, Morris JD, Xie Z, Fu XA, Nantz MH. Lipid peroxidation produces a diverse mixture of saturated and unsaturated aldehydes in exhaled breath that can serve as biomarkers of lung cancer—a review. Metabolites  2022; 12(6): 561.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo12060561] [PMID: 35736492]

[97]
Kanoh S, Kobayashi H, Motoyoshi K. Exhaled ethane. Chest  2005; 128(4): 2387-92.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.128.4.2387] [PMID: 16236899]

[98]
Plantier L, Smolinska A, Fijten R, et al. The use of exhaled air analysis in discriminating interstitial lung diseases: A pilot study. Respir Res  2022; 23(1): 12.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12931-021-01923-5] [PMID: 35057817]

[99]
Knuuti J, Wijns W, Saraste A, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of chronic coronary syndromes. Eur Heart J  2020; 41(3): 407-77.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz425]

[100]
McGraw KE, Riggs DW, Rai S, et al. Exposure to volatile organic compounds - acrolein, 1,3-butadiene, and crotonaldehyde - is associated with vascular dysfunction. Environ Res  2021; 196: 110903.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.110903] [PMID: 33636185]

[101]
McGraw K. Identifying the cardiovascular effects of multiple pollutants. University of Louisville 2021.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.18297/etd/3605]

[102]
Sharma R, Zang W, Tabartehfarahani A, et al. Portable breath-based volatile organic compound monitoring for the detection of COVID-19 During the circulation of the SARS-CoV-2 delta variant and the transition to the SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant. JAMA Netw Open  2023; 6(2): e230982.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.0982] [PMID: 36853606]

[103]
Ma CM, Lin LY, Chen HW, Huang LC, Li JF, Chuang KJ. Volatile organic compounds exposure and cardiovascular effects in hair salons. Occup Med  2010; 60(8): 624-30.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqq128] [PMID: 20819803]
Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Journal Information
For Authors
For Editors
For Reviewers
Explore Articles
Open Access
Open Access Articles
For Visitors
DOI https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/011573403X283768240124065853	Print ISSN 1573-403X
Publisher Name Bentham Science Publisher	Online ISSN 1875-6557
Current Cardiology Reviews

Breathomics Detect the Cardiovascular Disease: Delusion or Dilution of the Metabolomic Signature

Abstract Play Pause

Related Journals

Related Books

Abstract
