Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Nutrition & Food Science

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-4013
ISSN (Online): 2212-3881

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Obesity, Hypertension, and Kidney Dysfunction: Mechanical Links

Author(s): Merve Öksüz* and Pınar Göbel

Volume 19, Issue 3, 2023

Published on: 09 September, 2022

Page: [282 - 290] Pages: 9

DOI: 10.2174/1573401318666220622161438

Price: $65

Abstract

Obesity is a risk factor for many diseases, including cardiovascular disease (CVD), gastrointestinal disorders, type 2 diabetes (T2DM), joint and muscle disorders, respiratory problems, and psychological problems that can significantly affect daily life. Hypertension affects more than a quarter of the adult population in developed countries, constituting an important health problem. In addition, its pathogenesis is not yet fully understood. Although hypertension is mostly seen in overweight and obese people, it is usually more difficult to control in obese people. It is well known that obesity is associated with the activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin system, contributing to hypertension. Kidney dysfunction caused by obesity is a potential risk factor for cardiometabolic diseases, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. The purpose of this review study is to investigate the mechanical links between obesity, hypertension, and kidney dysfunction.

Keywords: Abnormal kidney dysfunction, cardiovascular risk, chronic kidney disease, pathophysiological mechanisms, glomerular filtration rate, hypertension risk.

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
World Health Organization. Obesity and overweight. 2017. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
[2]
Ganesan K, Habboush Y, Sultan S. Intermittent fasting: The choice for a healthier lifestyle. Cureus 2018; 10(7): e2947.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.2947] [PMID: 30202677]
[3]
Chooi YC, Ding C, Magkos F. The epidemiology of obesity. Metabolism 2019; 92: 6-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2018.09.005] [PMID: 30253139]
[4]
World Health Organization. Obesity and overweight. 2016. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
[5]
Kolahi AA, Moghisi A, Soleiman Ekhtiari Y. Socio-demographic determinants of obesity indexes in Iran: Findings from a nationwide STEPS survey. Health Promot Perspect 2018; 8(3): 187-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15171/hpp.2018.25] [PMID: 30087841]
[6]
National Center for Health Statistics. National health and nutrition examination survey. 2020. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm
[7]
Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu TUIK , Housing sales statistics.. 2022. Available from: Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK) (www-tuikgov-tr.translate.goog)
[8]
World Health Organization. A global brief on hypertension: Silent killer, global public health crisis. 2013. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/79059
[9]
Hall J, Juncos L, Wang Z, Hall M, do Carmo J, da Silva A. Obesity, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease. Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis 2014; 7: 75-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IJNRD.S39739] [PMID: 24600241]
[10]
Singh AP, Singh M, Kaur T, Buttar HS, Ghuman SS, Pathak D. Estradiol benzoate ameliorates obesity-induced renal dysfunction in male rats: Biochemical and morphological observations. In: Tappia PS, Bhullar SK, Dhalla NS, Eds. Biochemistry of Cardiovascular Dysfunction in Obesity. Springer: Cham 2020; pp. 367-84.
[11]
World Health Organization. Global status report on noncommunicable diseases World Health Organization. 2014; p. 280. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/148114
[12]
Bray GA, Kim KK, Wilding JPH. Obesity: A chronic relapsing progressive disease process. A position statement of the World Obesity Federation. Obes Rev 2017; 18(7): 715-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/obr.12551] [PMID: 28489290]
[13]
Franco M, Bilal U, Orduñez P, et al. Population-wide weight loss and regain in relation to diabetes burden and cardiovascular mortality in cuba 1980-2010: Repeated cross sectional surveys and ecological comparison of secular trends. BMJ 2013; 346(4): f1515.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f1515] [PMID: 23571838]
[14]
Williams EP, Mesidor M, Winters K, Dubbert PM, Wyatt SB. Overweight and obesity: Prevalence, consequences, and causes of a growing public health problem. Curr Obes Rep 2015; 4(3): 363-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13679-015-0169-4] [PMID: 26627494]
[15]
Obezite TEMD. Lipid metabolizması hipertansiyon çalışma grubu obezite tanı ve tedavi kılavuzu 2019, 8 baskı ankara: türkiye endokrinoloji ve metabolizma derneği. 2019. Available from: https://file.temd.org.tr/Uploads/publications/guides/documents/20190506163904-2019tbl_kilavuz5ccdcb9e5d.pdf?a=1
[16]
WHO/Europe | Nutrition - Body Mass Index - BMI.. 2010. Available from: https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/disease-prevention/nutrition/a-healthy-lifestyle/body-mass-index-bmi
[17]
Barnes RD, Ivezaj V. A systematic review of motivational interviewing for weight loss among adults in primary care. Obes Rev 2015; 16(4): 304-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/obr.12264] [PMID: 25752449]
[18]
Simonneau G, Gatzoulis MA, Adatia I, et al. Updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62(25): D34-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2013.10.029] [PMID: 24355639]
[19]
Alberti KGMM, Eckel RH, Grundy SM, et al. Harmonizing the metabolic syndrome: A joint interim statement of the international diabetes federation task force on epidemiology and prevention; national heart, lung, and blood institute; American heart association; world heart federation; international atherosclerosis society; and international association for the study of obesity. Circulation 2009; 120(16): 1640-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192644] [PMID: 19805654]
[20]
Zülfünaz Ö, Neslihan T, Turan GB. Bir üniversitede çalışan personellerin hipertansiyon hakkındaki bilgi tutum ve görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi. Sağlık Akademisyenleri Dergisi 2020; 7: 160-6.
[21]
Benjamin EJ, Muntner P, Alonso A, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2019 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2019; 139(10): e56-e528.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000659] [PMID: 30700139]
[22]
Aydoğdu S, Güler K, Bayram F, et al. Türk hipertansiyon uzlaşı raporu 2019. Turk Kardiyol Dern Ars 2019; 47(6): 535-46.
[PMID: 31483311]
[23]
Unger T, Borghi C, Charchar F, et al. 2020 international society of hypertension global hypertension practice guidelines. Hypertension 2020; 75(6): 1334-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15026] [PMID: 32370572]
[24]
Niriayo YL, Ibrahim S, Kassa TD, et al. Practice and predictors of self-care behaviors among ambulatory patients with hypertension in Ethiopia. PLoS One 2019; 14(6): e0218947.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218947] [PMID: 31242265]
[25]
Agbor LN, Nair AR, Wu J, et al. Conditional deletion of smooth muscle Cullin-3 causes severe progressive hypertension. JCI Insight 2019; 4(14): e129793.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.129793] [PMID: 31184598]
[26]
Reisin E, Graves JW, Yamal JM, et al. Blood pressure control and cardiovascular outcomes in normal-weight, overweight, and obese hypertensive patients treated with three different antihypertensives in ALLHAT. J Hypertens 2014; 32(7): 1503-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000000204] [PMID: 24842697]
[27]
Gu Q, Burt VL, Dillon CF, Yoon S. Trends in antihypertensive medication use and blood pressure control among United States adults with hypertension: The national health and nutrition examination survey, 2001 to 2010. Circulation 2012; 126(17): 2105-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.096156] [PMID: 23091084]
[28]
Lopes HF, Corrêa-Giannella ML, Consolim-Colombo FM, Egan BM. Visceral adiposity syndrome. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2016; 8(1): 40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13098-016-0156-2] [PMID: 27437032]
[29]
Rasouli M, Kiasari AM. Interactions of serum hsCRP with apoB, apoB/AI ratio and some components of metabolic syndrome amplify the predictive values for coronary artery disease. Clin Biochem 2006; 39(10): 971-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2006.07.003] [PMID: 16963013]
[30]
Acele A, Baykan AO, Yüksel Kalkan G, Çeliker E, Gür M. Epicardial fat thickness is associated with aortic intima-media thickness in patients without clinical manifestation of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Echocardiography 2017; 34(8): 1146-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/echo.13600] [PMID: 28670756]
[31]
Sacks HS, Fain JN. Human epicardial fat: What is new and what is missing? Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2011; 38(12): 879-87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05601.x] [PMID: 21895738]
[32]
Narumi T, Watanabe T, Iwayama T, et al. Increased epicardial adipose tissue volume predicts insulin resistance and coronary artery disease in non-obese subjects without metabolic syndrome. IJC Metab Endocr 2014; 3: 14-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcme.2014.03.003]
[33]
Rajani R. Epicardial adipose tissue: A simple marker of obesity or a complex mediator of cardiovascular disease? Atherosclerosis 2014; 63: 17.
[34]
Carbone F, Elia E, Casula M, et al. Baseline hs‐CRP predicts hypertension remission in metabolic syndrome. Eur J Clin Invest 2019; 49(8): e13128.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eci.13128] [PMID: 31091356]
[35]
World Health Organization. Fiscal policies for diet and prevention of noncommunicable diseases: Technical meeting report. 2015 May 5-6; Geneva, Switzerland. 2016
[36]
Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J. Longitudinal study of moderate weight change and sleep-disordered breathing. JAMA 2000; 284(23): 3015-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.23.3015] [PMID: 11122588]
[37]
Hunt SA. ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 46(6): e1-e82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2005.08.022] [PMID: 16168273]
[38]
Huang Cao ZF, Stoffel E, Cohen P. Role of perivascular adipose tissue in vascular physiology and pathology. Hypertension 2017; 69(5): 770-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.08451] [PMID: 28320849]
[39]
Loria AS, Pollock DM, Pollock JS. Early life stress sensitizes rats to angiotensin II-induced hypertension and vascular inflammation in adult life. Hypertension 2010; 55(2): 494-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.145391] [PMID: 20026758]
[40]
Dalmasso C, Leachman JR, Ensor CM, et al. Female mice exposed to postnatal neglect display angiotensin ii–dependent obesity‐induced hypertension. J Am Heart Assoc 2019; 8(23): e012309.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.119.012309] [PMID: 31752639]
[41]
Ruan CC, Gao PJ. Role of complement-related inflammation and vascular dysfunction in hypertension. Hypertension 2019; 73(5): 965-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.118.11210] [PMID: 30929519]
[42]
Fernández-Alfonso MS, Gil-Ortega M, García-Prieto CF, Aranguez I, Ruiz-Gayo M, Somoza B. Mechanisms of perivascular adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity. Int J Endocrinol 2013; 2013: 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/402053] [PMID: 24307898]
[43]
Marsh LM, Jandl K, Grünig G, et al. The inflammatory cell landscape in the lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Respir J 2018; 51(1): 1701214.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01214-2017] [PMID: 29371380]
[44]
Humbert M, Guignabert C, Bonnet S, et al. Pathology and pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension: State of the art and research perspectives. Eur Respir J 2019; 53(1): 1801887.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01887-2018] [PMID: 30545970]
[45]
Kwatra B. Studies on people employed in high risk workplace: Between genetic polymorphism for Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-A) and blood pressure. J Pharm Pharm Sci 2019; 8: 488-500.
[46]
Donato AJ, Henson GD, Morgan RG, Enz RA, Walker AE, Lesniewski LA. TNF-α impairs endothelial function in adipose tissue resistance arteries of mice with diet-induced obesity. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2012; 303(6): H672-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00271.2012] [PMID: 22821989]
[47]
Liu C, Zhou MS, Li Y, et al. Oral nicotine aggravates endothelial dysfunction and vascular inflammation in diet-induced obese rats: Role of macrophage TNFα. PLoS One 2017; 12(12): e0188439.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188439] [PMID: 29236702]
[48]
Mehaffey E, Majid DSA. Tumor necrosis factor-α kidney function, and hypertension. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2017; 313(4): F1005-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.00535.2016] [PMID: 28724611]
[49]
Stafeev IS, Vorotnikov AV, Ratner EI, Menshikov MY, Parfyonova YV. Latent inflammation and insulin resistance in adipose tissue. Int J Endocrinol 2017; 2017: 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/5076732] [PMID: 28912810]
[50]
Du Y, Li R, Lau WB, et al. Adiponectin at physiologically relevant concentrations enhances the vasorelaxative effect of acetylcholine via Cav-1/AdipoR-1 signaling. PLoS One 2016; 11(3): e0152247.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152247] [PMID: 27023866]
[51]
Summer R, Walsh K, Medoff BD. Obesity and pulmonary arterial hypertension: Is adiponectin the molecular link between these conditions? Pulm Circ 2011; 1(4): 440-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2045-8932.93542] [PMID: 22530098]
[52]
Mechanick JI, Zhao S, Garvey WT. Leptin, an adipokine with central importance in the global obesity problem. Glob Heart 2018; 13(2): 113-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gheart.2017.10.003] [PMID: 29248361]
[53]
Seravalle G, Grassi G. Sympathetic nervous system, hypertension, obesity and metabolic syndrome. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev 2016; 23(3): 175-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40292-016-0137-4] [PMID: 26942609]
[54]
Friedman J. The long road to leptin. J Clin Invest 2016; 126(12): 4727-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI91578] [PMID: 27906690]
[55]
Wolk R, Bertolet M, Singh P, et al. Prognostic value of adipokines in predicting cardiovascular outcome: Explaining the obesity paradox. Mayo Clin Proc 2016; 91(7): 858-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.03.020]
[56]
Ghaedian MM, Nazari Jaz A, Momeni M, Ghaedian T, Samiei N. Plasma leptin level is positively associated with blood pressure measures independent of gender and BMI. Clin Exp Hypertens 2020; 42(1): 31-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10641963.2018.1557684] [PMID: 30582364]
[57]
Cohen JB. Hypertension in obesity and the impact of weight loss. Curr Cardiol Rep 2017; 19(10): 98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11886-017-0912-4] [PMID: 28840500]
[58]
Ye J. Mechanisms of insulin resistance in obesity. Front Med 2013; 7(1): 14-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11684-013-0262-6] [PMID: 23471659]
[59]
Kishida K, Funahashi T, Shimomura I. Clinical importance of assessment of type 2 diabetes mellitus with visceral obesity. A Japanese perspective. Curr Diabetes Rev 2012; 8(2): 84-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157339912799424546] [PMID: 22309596]
[60]
Thomas G, Sehgal AR, Kashyap SR, Srinivas TR, Kirwan JP, Navaneethan SD. Metabolic syndrome and kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2011; 6(10): 2364-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.02180311] [PMID: 21852664]
[61]
Wang F, Han L, Hu D. Fasting insulin, insulin resistance and risk of hypertension in the general population: A meta-analysis. Clin Chim Acta 2017; 464: 57-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2016.11.009] [PMID: 27836689]
[62]
Valensi P. Autonomic nervous system activity changes in patients with hypertension and overweight: Role and therapeutic implications. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2021; 20(1): 170.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12933-021-01356-w] [PMID: 34412646]
[63]
Jha V, Garcia-Garcia G, Iseki K, et al. Chronic kidney disease: Global dimension and perspectives. Lancet 2013; 382(9888): 260-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60687-X] [PMID: 23727169]
[64]
Chawla LS, Eggers PW, Star RA, Kimmel PL. Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease as interconnected syndromes. N Engl J Med 2014; 371(1): 58-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1214243] [PMID: 24988558]
[65]
Lakkis JI, Weir MR. Obesity and kidney disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2018; 61(2): 157-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2018.07.005] [PMID: 29981350]
[66]
Meenakshi Sundaram SP, Nagarajan S, Manjula Devi AJ. Chronic kidney disease—effect of oxidative stress. Chinese J Bio 2014; 2014: 1-6.
[67]
Reuter S, Gupta SC, Chaturvedi MM, Aggarwal BB. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: How are they linked? Free Radic Biol Med 2010; 49(11): 1603-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.09.006] [PMID: 20840865]
[68]
Kashihara N, Haruna Y, Kondeti VK, Kanwar YS. Oxidative stress in diabetic nephropathy. Curr Med Chem 2010; 17(34): 4256-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/092986710793348581] [PMID: 20939814]
[69]
Kim SY, Lim AY, Jeon SK, Lee IS, Choue R. Effects of dietary protein and fat contents on renal function and inflammatory cytokines in rats with adriamycin-induced nephrotic syndrome. Mediators Inflamm 2011; 2011: 1-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/945123] [PMID: 21822358]
[70]
Wu M, Rementer C, Giachelli CM. Vascular calcification: An update on mechanisms and challenges in treatment. Calcif Tissue Int 2013; 93(4): 365-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00223-013-9712-z] [PMID: 23456027]
[71]
Liberman M, Pesaro AEP, Carmo LS, Serrano CV Jr. Vascular calcification: Pathophysiology and clinical implications. Einstein 2013; 11(3): 376-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1679-45082013000300021] [PMID: 24136769]
[72]
Liu M, Li XC, Lu L, et al. Cardiovascular disease and its relationship with chronic kidney disease. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2014; 18(19): 2918-26.
[PMID: 25339487]
[73]
Watanabe R, Lemos MM, Manfredi SR, Draibe SA, Canziani MEF. Impact of cardiovascular calcification in nondialyzed patients after 24 months of follow-up. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010; 5(2): 189-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.06240909] [PMID: 19965535]
[74]
Suh SH, Choi HS, Kim CS, et al. Chronic kidney disease attenuates the impact of obesity on quality of life. Sci Rep 2020; 10(1): 2375.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59382-9] [PMID: 32047200]
[75]
Konopelniuk VV, Goloborodko II, Ishchuk TV, et al. Efficacy of Fenugreek-based bionanocomposite on renal dysfunction and endogenous intoxication in high-calorie diet-induced obesity rat model—comparative study. EPMA J 2017; 8(4): 377-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13167-017-0098-2] [PMID: 29209440]
[76]
Mills KT, Hamm LL, Alper AB, et al. Circulating adipocytokines and chronic kidney disease. PLoS One 2013; 8(10): e76902.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076902] [PMID: 24116180]
[77]
Briffa JF, McAinch AJ, Poronnik P, Hryciw DH. Adipokines as a link between obesity and chronic kidney disease. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2013; 305(12): F1629-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.00263.2013] [PMID: 24107418]
[78]
Eknoyan G. Obesity and chronic kidney disease. Nefrologia 2011; 31(4): 397-403.
[PMID: 21623393]
[79]
Helal I, Fick-Brosnahan GM, Reed-Gitomer B, Schrier RW. Glomerular hyperfiltration: Definitions, mechanisms and clinical implications. Nat Rev Nephrol 2012; 8(5): 293-300.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrneph.2012.19] [PMID: 22349487]
[80]
Anastasio P, Viggiano D, Zacchia M, Altobelli C, Capasso G, Gaspare De Santo N. Delay in renal hemodynamic response to a meat meal in severe obesity. Nephron J 2017; 136(2): 151-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000453283] [PMID: 28329736]
[81]
Miricescu D, Balan D, Tulin A, et al. Impact of adipose tissue in chronic kidney disease development (Review). Exp Ther Med 2021; 21(5): 539.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.9969] [PMID: 33815612]
[82]
Mafune A, Iwamoto T, Tsutsumi Y, et al. Associations among serum trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) levels, kidney function and infarcted coronary artery number in patients undergoing cardiovascular surgery: A cross-sectional study. Clin Exp Nephrol 2016; 20(5): 731-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10157-015-1207-y] [PMID: 26676906]
[83]
Cho CE, Caudill MA. Trimethylamine-N-oxide: Friend, foe, or simply caught in the cross-fire? Trends in Endocrinology &amp. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2017; 28(2): 121-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2016.10.005] [PMID: 27825547]
[84]
Gruppen EG, Garcia E, Connelly MA, et al. TMAO is associated with mortality: Impact of modestly impaired renal function. Sci Rep 2017; 7(1): 13781.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13739-9] [PMID: 29061990]
[85]
Saran R, Robinson B, Abbott KC, et al. US renal data system 2017 annual data report: Epidemiology of kidney disease in the United States. Am J Kidney Dis 2018; 71(3) (Suppl. 1): A7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2018.01.002] [PMID: 29477157]
[86]
McMahon EJ, Bauer JD, Hawley CM, et al. A randomized trial of dietary sodium restriction in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2013; 24(12): 2096-103.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2013030285] [PMID: 24204003]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy