Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1381-6128
ISSN (Online): 1873-4286

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Recognizing, Managing and Treating Acute Agitation in Youths

Author(s): Virginio Salvi, Laura Orsolini*, Lorenzo Maria Martino, Simone Pompili and Umberto Volpe

Volume 28, Issue 31, 2022

Published on: 06 September, 2022

Page: [2554 - 2568] Pages: 15

DOI: 10.2174/1381612828666220603144401

Price: $65

Abstract

Acute agitation is common in youths presenting to emergency departments, and, in some cases, may escalate into aggression and violence. Therefore, acute agitation in youths should be immediately and appropriately recognized and treated to avoid the consequences of its escalation. Agitation is widespread in youths, reported in around 7% of all youths admitted to emergency departments due to psychiatric reasons. Overall, the most frequent causes of youth acute agitation include the exacerbation of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as ADHD, autism, or intellectual disabilities, or the onset of mood and psychotic disorders. Substance abuse is also common in adolescents and young adults with acute agitation. Management of agitation should be individualized, multidisciplinary, and collaborative. Along with a diagnostic assessment, the needs of the young patients should be understood and addressed, and de-escalation strategies should be immediately prompted. Rapid recognition and management are warranted, in order to assure the safety of the patient and healthcare staff jeopardized by the acute crisis. Firstly, environmental and de-escalation strategies should be acted with the aim to reduce agitation and, if possible, avoid the use of physical restraint. In case these strategies fail to succeed, pharmacological treatment should be rapidly implemented. Although youth agitation and aggression is transdiagnostic, prior diagnosis of psychiatric disorder should guide the choice of the tranquilizing medication whenever possible. This review will examine these aspects in detail and provide guidance on how to recognize, manage, treat and resolve acute agitation in youths.

Keywords: Adolescents, aggression, de-escalation, youth, agitation, treatment.

« Previous Next »
[1]
Zimbroff DL. Pharmacological control of acute agitation: Focus on intramuscular preparations. CNS Drugs 2008; 22(3): 199-212.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200822030-00002] [PMID: 18278976]
[2]
Gerson R, Malas N, Feuer V, et al. Best practices for evaluation and treatment of agitated children and adolescents (BETA) in the emergency department: Consensus statement of the American Association for Emergency Psychiatry. West J Emerg Med 2019; 20(2): 409-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2019.1.41344] [PMID: 30881565]
[3]
Dorfman DH, Mehta SD. Restraint use for psychiatric patients in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 2006; 22(1): 7-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.pec.0000195758.12447.69] [PMID: 16418605]
[4]
Lunsky Y, Paquette-Smith M, Weiss JA, Lee J. Predictors of emergency service use in adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder living with family. Emerg Med J 2015; 32(10): 787-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/emermed-2014-204015] [PMID: 25433045]
[5]
Leventhal AM, Pettit JW, Lewinsohn PM. Characterizing major depression phenotypes by presence and type of psychomotor disturbance in adolescents and young adults. Depress Anxiety 2008; 25(7): 575-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20328] [PMID: 17385727]
[6]
Tonezer J, Muller T, Rocha GP, Recondo R, Nogueira EL, Spanemberg L. Clinical profile and sex differences in brazilian children and adolescents receiving psychiatric services in the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 2021; 37(12): e901-4.
[PMID: 26125530]
[7]
Anderson SAR, Oprescu AM, Calello DP, et al. Neuropsychiatric sequelae in adolescents with acute synthetic cannabinoid toxicity. Pediatrics 2019; 144(2): e20182690.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2690] [PMID: 31285395]
[8]
Finkelstein Y, Goel G, Hutson JR, et al. Toxicology Investigators Consortium. (ToxIC). Drug misuse in adolescents presenting to the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 2017; 33: 451-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0000000000000571] [PMID: 26466148]
[9]
Auten JD, Matteucci MJ, Gaspary MJ, Combs DJ, Clark RF. Psychiatric implications of adolescent methamphetamine exposures. Pediatr Emerg Care 2012; 28(1): 26-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0b013e31823ed6ca] [PMID: 22193694]
[10]
Peacock A, Bruno R, Martin FH. The subjective physiological, psychological, and behavioral risk-taking consequences of alcohol and energy drink co-ingestion. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2012; 36(11): 2008-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01820.x] [PMID: 22897756]
[11]
Périsse D, Amiet C, Consoli A, et al. Risk factors of acute behavioral regression in psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents with autism. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2010; 19(2): 100-8.
[PMID: 20467546]
[12]
Garriga M, Pacchiarotti I, Kasper S, et al. Assessment and management of agitation in psychiatry: Expert consensus. World J Biol Psychiatry 2016; 17(2): 86-128.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/15622975.2015.1132007] [PMID: 26912127]
[13]
Gaskin CJ, Elsom SJ, Happell B. Interventions for reducing the use of seclusion in psychiatric facilities: Review of the literature. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 191(4): 298-303.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.034538] [PMID: 17906239]
[14]
Jayaram G, Samuels J, Konrad SS. Prediction and prevention of aggression and seclusion by early screening and comprehensive seclusion documentation. Innov Clin Neurosci 2012; 9(7-8): 30-8.
[PMID: 22984650]
[15]
Gerson R, Malas N, Mroczkowski MM. Crisis in the emergency department: The evaluation and management of acute agitation in children and adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2018; 27(3): 367-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2018.02.002] [PMID: 29933788]
[16]
Management of patients with acute severe behavioural disturbance in emergency departments. NSW Government Health Guideline Summary, No. GL2015_007 2020.
[17]
Sacchetti E, Amore M, Di Sciascio G, et al. Psychomotor agitation in psychiatry: An Italian Expert Consensus. Evidence-based Psychiatric Care 2017; 3: 1-24.
[18]
Ogloff JR, Daffern M. The dynamic appraisal of situational aggression: An instrument to assess risk for imminent aggression in psychiatric inpatients. Behav Sci Law 2006; 24(6): 799-813.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.741] [PMID: 17171770]
[19]
Barzman DH, Brackenbury L, Sonnier L, et al. Brief Rating of Aggression by Children and Adolescents (BRACHA): Development of a tool for assessing risk of inpatients’ aggressive behavior. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 2011; 39(2): 170-9.
[PMID: 21653259]
[20]
Yudofsky SC, Silver JM, Jackson W, Endicott J, Williams D. The Overt Aggression Scale for the objective rating of verbal and physical aggression. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143(1): 35-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.143.1.35] [PMID: 3942284]
[21]
Woods P, Almvik R. The Brøset violence checklist (BVC). Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 2002; 412(412): 103-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0447.106.s412.22.x] [PMID: 12072138]
[22]
Buss AH, Perry M. The aggression questionnaire. J Pers Soc Psychol 1992; 63(3): 452-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452] [PMID: 1403624]
[23]
National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Violence and aggression: Short-term management in mental health, health and community settings: Updated edition London. British Psychological Society UK 2015.
[24]
Richmond JS, Berlin JS, Fishkind AB, et al. Verbal De-escalation of the Agitated Patient: Consensus Statement of the American Association for Emergency Psychiatry Project BETA De-escalation Workgroup. West J Emerg Med 2012; 13(1): 17-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2011.9.6864] [PMID: 22461917]
[25]
Hoover S, Bostic J. Improving the Child and Adolescent Crisis System: Shifting from a 9-1-1 to a 9-8-8 Paradigm. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors In: 2020. Available form: https://www.nasmhpd.org/sites/default/files/2020paper9.pdf
[26]
Morganti C, Allevi L, Poli R, et al. Network for the promotion of the appropriateness and safety of use of psychotropic drugs in adults and in developmental age 2012. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278543521
[27]
Castillo-Eito L, Armitage CJ, Norman P, Day MR, Dogru OC, Rowe R. How can adolescent aggression be reduced? A multi-level meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 2020; 78: 101853.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101853] [PMID: 32402919]
[28]
Michie S, Atkins L, West R. The behaviour change wheel: A guide to designing interventions. London: Silverback Publishing 2014.
[29]
Cummings MR, Miller BD. Pharmacologic management of behavioral instability in medically ill pediatric patients. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004; 16(5): 516-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.mop.0000139300.13152.20] [PMID: 15367845]
[30]
Heyneman EK. The aggressive child. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2003; 12(4): 667-77. [vi-vii.]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(03)00040-3] [PMID: 14579645]
[31]
Greene RW, Ablon JS, Hassuk B, Regan KM, Martin A. Innovations: Child & adolescent psychiatry: Use of collaborative problem solving to reduce seclusion and restraint in child and adolescent inpatient units. Psychiatr Serv 2006; 57(5): 610-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ps.2006.57.5.610] [PMID: 16675751]
[32]
Martin A, Krieg H, Esposito F, Stubbe D, Cardona L. Reduction of restraint and seclusion through collaborative problem solving: A five-year prospective inpatient study. Psychiatr Serv 2008; 59(12): 1406-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.12.1406] [PMID: 19033167]
[33]
Masters KJ, Bellonci C, Bernet W, Arnold V, Beitchman J, Benson RS, et al. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Practice parameter for the prevention and management of aggressive behavior in child and adolescent psychiatric institutions, with special reference to seclusion and restraint. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41(2): 4-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200202001-00002]
[34]
De Hert M, Dirix N, Demunter H, Correll CU. Prevalence and correlates of seclusion and restraint use in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2011; 20(5): 221-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-011-0160-x] [PMID: 21298305]
[35]
Nelstrop L, Chandler-Oatts J, Bingley W, et al. A systematic review of the safety and effectiveness of restraint and seclusion as interventions for the short-term management of violence in adult psychiatric inpatient settings and emergency departments. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs 2006; 3(1): 8-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-6787.2006.00041.x] [PMID: 17040518]
[36]
Andrade BF, Courtney D, Duda S, et al. A systematic review and evaluation of clinical practice guidelines for children and youth with disruptive behavior: Rigor of development and recommendations for use. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2019; 22(4): 527-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00292-2] [PMID: 30927153]
[37]
Bruno A, Celebre L, Torre G, et al. Focus on disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: A review of the literature. Psychiatry Res 2019; 279: 323-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.05.043] [PMID: 31164249]
[38]
Fallah MS, Shaikh MR, Neupane B, Rusiecki D, Bennett TA, Beyene J. Atypical antipsychotics for irritability in pediatric autism: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2019; 29(3): 168-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2018.0115] [PMID: 30707602]
[39]
(CADDRA) CARA. Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines. 4th ed. Toronto: CADDRA 2018.
[40]
Lamy M, Erickson CA. Pharmacological management of behavioral disturbances in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2018; 48(10): 250-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2018.08.015] [PMID: 30262163]
[41]
Hoch K. Current evidence-based practice for pediatric emergence agitation. AANA J 2019; 87(6): 495-9.
[PMID: 31920204]
[42]
Loy JH, Merry SN, Hetrick SE, Stasiak K. Atypical antipsychotics for disruptive behaviour disorders in children and youths. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 8(8): CD008559.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008559.pub3] [PMID: 28791693]
[43]
Gurnani T, Ivanov I, Newcorn JH. Pharmacotherapy of aggression in child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2016; 26(1): 65-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2015.0167] [PMID: 26881859]
[44]
Gorman DA, Gardner DM, Murphy AL, et al. Canadian guidelines on pharmacotherapy for disruptive and aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, or conduct disorder. Can J Psychiatry 2015; 60(2): 62-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674371506000204] [PMID: 25886657]
[45]
Balia C, Carucci S, Coghill D, Zuddas A. The pharmacological treatment of aggression in children and adolescents with conduct disorder. Do callous-unemotional traits modulate the efficacy of medication? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 91: 218-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.024] [PMID: 28137460]
[46]
Sharma AN, Arango C, Coghill D, et al. BAP Position Statement: Off-label prescribing of psychotropic medication to children and adolescents. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30(5): 416-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881116636107] [PMID: 27098018]
[47]
Griffith R. Medicines law overhaul with Human Medicines Regulations 2012. Br J Community Nurs 2012; 17(9): 445-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/bjcn.2012.17.9.445] [PMID: 23123490]
[48]
Joshi G, Wilens T, Firmin ES, Hoskova B, Biederman J. Pharmacotherapy of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review of the literature. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35(3): 203-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881120972336] [PMID: 33349107]
[49]
Chan E, Fogler JM, Hammerness PG. Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: A systematic review. JAMA 2016; 315(18): 1997-2008.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.5453] [PMID: 27163988]
[50]
Greenhill LL, Halperin JM, Abikoff H. Stimulant medications. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(5): 503-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199905000-00011] [PMID: 10230181]
[51]
Brown RT, Amler RW, Freeman WS, et al. Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Overview of the evidence. Pediatrics 2005; 115(6): e749-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2560] [PMID: 15930203]
[52]
Connor DF, Glatt SJ, Lopez ID, Jackson D, Melloni RH Jr. Psychopharmacology and aggression. I: A meta-analysis of stimulant effects on overt/covert aggression-related behaviors in ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41(3): 253-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200203000-00004] [PMID: 11886019]
[53]
Pappadopulos E, Woolston S, Chait A, Perkins M, Connor DF, Jensen PS. Pharmacotherapy of aggression in children and adolescents: Efficacy and effect size. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 15(1): 27-39.
[PMID: 18392193]
[54]
Pringsheim T, Hirsch L, Gardner D, Gorman DA. The pharmacological management of oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Part 1: Psychostimulants, alpha-2 agonists, and atomoxetine. Can J Psychiatry 2015; 60(2): 42-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674371506000202] [PMID: 25886655]
[55]
Magalotti SR, Neudecker M, Zaraa SG, McVoy MK. Understanding chronic aggression and its treatment in children and adolescents. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2019; 21(12): 123.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1105-1] [PMID: 31741142]
[56]
Patel BD, Barzman DH. Pharmacology and pharmacogenetics of pediatric ADHD with associated aggression: A review. Psychiatr Q 2013; 84(4): 407-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11126-013-9253-7] [PMID: 23443759]
[57]
Pillay J, Boylan K, Carrey N, et al. First- and Second-Generation Antipsychotics in Children and Young Adults: Systematic Review Update. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); March 2017.
[58]
Snyder R, Turgay A, Aman M, Binder C, Fisman S, Carroll A. Effects of risperidone on conduct and disruptive behavior disorders in children with subaverage IQs. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41(9): 1026-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200209000-00002] [PMID: 12218423]
[59]
Armenteros JL, Lewis JE, Davalos M. Risperidone augmentation for treatment-resistant aggression in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A placebo-controlled pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 46(5): 558-65.
[60]
Masi G, Milone A, Manfredi A, Brovedani P, Pisano S, Muratori P. Combined pharmacotherapy-multimodal psychotherapy in children with disruptive behavior disorders. Psychiatry Res 2016; 238: 8-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.02.010] [PMID: 27086204]
[61]
Reyes M, Olah R, Csaba K, Augustyns I, Eerdekens M. Long-term safety and efficacy of risperidone in children with disruptive behaviour disorders. Results of a 2-year extension study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 15(2): 97-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0504-0] [PMID: 16523250]
[62]
Reyes M, Buitelaar J, Toren P, Augustyns I, Eerdekens M. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone maintenance treatment in children and adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163(3): 402-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.402] [PMID: 16513860]
[63]
Shafiq S, Pringsheim T. Using antipsychotics for behavioral problems in children. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2018; 19(13): 1475-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2018.1509069] [PMID: 30102079]
[64]
van Schalkwyk GI, Lewis AS, Beyer C, Johnson J, van Rensburg S, Bloch MH. Efficacy of antipsychotics for irritability and aggression in children: A meta-analysis. Expert Rev Neurother 2017; 17(10): 1045-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2017.1371012] [PMID: 28847182]
[65]
Safavi P, Hasanpour-Dehkordi A. AmirAhmadi M. Comparison of risperidone and aripiprazole in the treatment of preschool children with disruptive behavior disorder and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: A randomized clinical trial. J Adv Pharm Technol Res 2016; 7(2): 43-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2231-4040.177203] [PMID: 27144151]
[66]
Ghosh A, Ray A, Basu A. Oppositional defiant disorder: Current insight. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2017; 10: 353-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S120582] [PMID: 29238235]
[67]
Kronenberger WG, Giauque AL, Lafata DE, Bohnstedt BN, Maxey LE, Dunn DW. Quetiapine addition in methylphenidate treatment-resistant adolescents with comorbid ADHD, conduct/oppositional-defiant disorder, and aggression: A prospective, open-label study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2007; 17(3): 334-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.0012] [PMID: 17630867]
[68]
Blader JC, Pliszka SR, Jensen PS, Schooler NR, Kafantaris V. Stimulant-responsive and stimulant-refractory aggressive behavior among children with ADHD. Pediatrics 2010; 126(4): e796-806.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-0086] [PMID: 20837589]
[69]
Connor DF, Barkley RA, Davis HT. A pilot study of methylphenidate, clonidine, or the combination in ADHD comorbid with aggressive oppositional defiant or conduct disorder. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2000; 39(1): 15-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000992280003900102] [PMID: 10660814]
[70]
Hazell PL, Stuart JE. A randomized controlled trial of clonidine added to psychostimulant medication for hyperactive and aggressive children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003; 42(8): 886-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.CHI.0000046908.27264.00] [PMID: 12874489]
[71]
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) 5th edition ed. American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc, Washington DC 2013.
[72]
Khan S, Down J, Aouira N, et al. Current pharmacotherapy options for conduct disorders in adolescents and children. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2019; 20(5): 571-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2018.1561862] [PMID: 30702354]
[73]
Pringsheim T, Hirsch L, Gardner D, Gorman DA. The pharmacological management of oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Part 2: Antipsychotics and traditional mood stabilizers. Can J Psychiatry 2015; 60(2): 52-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674371506000203] [PMID: 25886656]
[74]
Van Bellinghen M, De Troch C. Risperidone in the treatment of behavioral disturbances in children and adolescents with borderline intellectual functioning: A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2001; 11(1): 5-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/104454601750143348] [PMID: 11322745]
[75]
Aman MG, De Smedt G, Derivan A, Lyons B, Findling RL. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone for the treatment of disruptive behaviors in children with subaverage intelligence. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159(8): 1337-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.8.1337] [PMID: 12153826]
[76]
Balia C, Carucci S, Milone A, et al. Neuropsychological characterization of aggressive behavior in children and adolescents with CD/ODD and effects of single doses of medications: The protocol of the matrics_WP6-1 study. Brain Sci 2021; 11(12): 1639.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11121639] [PMID: 34942941]
[77]
Demirkaya SK, Aksu H, Özgür BG. A Retrospective study of long acting risperidone use to support treatment adherence in youth with conduct disorder. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci 2017; 15(4): 328-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2017.15.4.328] [PMID: 29073744]
[78]
Ardic UA, Küçükköse M, Inci SB, Ercan ES. Efficacy and safety profile of risperidone long-acting injection in adolescents in a real-life setting. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci 2018; 16(1): 57-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2018.16.1.57] [PMID: 29397667]
[79]
Findling RL, Reed MD, O’Riordan MA, Demeter CA, Stansbrey RJ, McNamara NK. A 26-week open-label study of quetiapine in children with conduct disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2007; 17(1): 1-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.0027] [PMID: 17343549]
[80]
Findling RL, Reed MD, O’Riordan MA, Demeter CA, Stansbrey RJ, McNamara NK. Effectiveness, safety, and pharmacokinetics of quetiapine in aggressive children with conduct disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 45(7): 792-800.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000219832.23849.31] [PMID: 16832315]
[81]
Ercan ES, Uysal T, Ercan E, Akyol Ardic U. Aripiprazole in children and adolescents with conduct disorder: A single-center, open-label study. Pharmacopsychiatry 2012; 45(1): 13-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1286348] [PMID: 21993869]
[82]
Juárez-Treviño M, Esquivel AC, Isida LML, et al. Clozapine in the treatment of aggression in conduct disorder in children and adolescents: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci 2019; 17(1): 43-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2019.17.1.43] [PMID: 30690939]
[83]
Fung LK, Mahajan R, Nozzolillo A, et al. Pharmacologic treatment of severe irritability and problem behaviors in autism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2016; 137(1)(Suppl. 2): S124-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-2851K] [PMID: 26908468]
[84]
Fankhauser MP, Karumanchi VC, German ML, Yates A, Karumanchi SD. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of transdermal clonidine in autism. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53(3): 77-82.
[PMID: 1548248]
[85]
Comings DE, Comings BG, Tacket T, Li SZ. The clonidine patch and behavior problems. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990; 29(4): 667-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199007000-00026] [PMID: 2387806]
[86]
Chandran KS. ECG and clonidine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994; 33(9): 1351-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199411000-00023] [PMID: 7995805]
[87]
Kemph JP, DeVane CL, Levin GM, Jarecke R, Miller RL. Treatment of aggressive children with clonidine: Results of an open pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993; 32(3): 577-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199305000-00013] [PMID: 8496122]
[88]
Malone RP, Delaney MA, Luebbert JF, Cater J, Campbell M. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lithium in hospitalized aggressive children and adolescents with conduct disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57(7): 649-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.57.7.649] [PMID: 10891035]
[89]
Goel R, Hong JS, Findling RL, Ji NY. An update on pharmacotherapy of autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents. Int Rev Psychiatry 2018; 30(1): 78-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2018.1458706] [PMID: 29693461]
[90]
Coury DL, Anagnostou E, Manning-Courtney P, et al. Use of psychotropic medication in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics 2012; 130(1)(Suppl. 2): S69-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-0900D] [PMID: 23118256]
[91]
McCracken JT, McGough J, Shah B, et al. Risperidone in children with autism and serious behavioral problems. N Engl J Med 2002; 347(5): 314-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa013171] [PMID: 12151468]
[92]
Owen R, Sikich L, Marcus RN, et al. Aripiprazole in the treatment of irritability in children and adolescents with autistic disorder. Pediatrics 2009; 124(6): 1533-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-3782] [PMID: 19948625]
[93]
Marcus RN, Owen R, Kamen L, et al. A placebo-controlled, fixed-dose study of aripiprazole in children and adolescents with irritability associated with autistic disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009; 48(11): 1110-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181b76658] [PMID: 19797985]
[94]
Elbe D, Lalani Z. Review of the pharmacotherapy of irritability of autism. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2012; 21(2): 130-46.
[PMID: 22548111]
[95]
McClellan L, Dominick KC, Pedapati EV, Wink LK, Erickson CA. Lurasidone for the treatment of irritability and anger in autism spectrum disorders. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2017; 26(8): 985-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13543784.2017.1353600] [PMID: 28685626]
[96]
Findling RL, McNamara NK. Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of children and adolescents: Clinical applications. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65(Suppl. 6): 30-44.
[PMID: 15104524]
[97]
Duggal HS. Ziprasidone for maladaptive behavior and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in autistic disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2007; 17(2): 261-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.00136] [PMID: 17489724]
[98]
Malone RP, Delaney MA, Hyman SB, Cater JR. Ziprasidone in adolescents with autism: An open-label pilot study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2007; 17(6): 779-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.0126] [PMID: 18315450]
[99]
Ming X, Gordon E, Kang N, Wagner GC. Use of clonidine in children with autism spectrum disorders. Brain Dev 2008; 30(7): 454-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2007.12.007] [PMID: 18280681]
[100]
Jaselskis CA, Cook EH Jr, Fletcher KE, Leventhal BL. Clonidine treatment of hyperactive and impulsive children with autistic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992; 12(5): 322-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199210000-00005] [PMID: 1479049]
[101]
Propper L. Managing disruptive behaviour in autism-spectrum disorder with guanfacine. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2018; 43(5): 359-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/jpn.180039] [PMID: 30125242]
[102]
Sharma SR, Gonda X, Tarazi FI. Autism Spectrum Disorder: Classification, diagnosis and therapy. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 190: 91-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.05.007] [PMID: 29763648]
[103]
Politte LC, Scahill L, Figueroa J, McCracken JT, King B, McDougle CJ. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of extended-release guanfacine in children with autism spectrum disorder and ADHD symptoms: An analysis of secondary outcome measures. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43(8): 1772-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41386-018-0039-3] [PMID: 29540864]
[104]
Davico C, Canavese C, Vittorini R, Gandione M, Vitiello B. Anticonvulsants for psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents: A systematic review of their efficacy. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9: 270.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00270] [PMID: 29988399]
[105]
Hellings JA, Weckbaugh M, Nickel EJ, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of valproate for aggression in youth with pervasive developmental disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2005; 15(4): 682-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2005.15.682] [PMID: 16190799]
[106]
Hollander E, Chaplin W, Soorya L, et al. Divalproex sodium vs placebo for the treatment of irritability in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35(4): 990-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.202] [PMID: 20010551]
[107]
Hollander E, Soorya L, Wasserman S, Esposito K, Chaplin W, Anagnostou E. Divalproex sodium vs. placebo in the treatment of repetitive behaviours in autism spectrum disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2006; 9(2): 209-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1461145705005791] [PMID: 16316486]
[108]
Douglas JF, Sanders KB, Benneyworth MH, et al. Brief report: Retrospective case series of oxcarbazepine for irritability/agitation symptoms in autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2013; 43(5): 1243-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1661-2] [PMID: 22976374]
[109]
Kapetanovic S. Oxcarbazepine in youths with autistic disorder and significant disruptive behaviors. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164(5): 832-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.5.832] [PMID: 17475749]
[110]
Wasserman S, Iyengar R, Chaplin WF, et al. Levetiracetam versus placebo in childhood and adolescent autism: A double-blind placebo-controlled study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 21(6): 363-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.yic.0000224787.13782.0f] [PMID: 17012983]
[111]
Siegel M, Beresford CA, Bunker M, et al. Preliminary investigation of lithium for mood disorder symptoms in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2014; 24(7): 399-402.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2014.0019] [PMID: 25093602]
[112]
Belsito KM, Law PA, Kirk KS, Landa RJ, Zimmerman AW. Lamotrigine therapy for autistic disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Autism Dev Disord 2001; 31(2): 175-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1010799115457] [PMID: 11450816]
[113]
Stoddard J, Wiggins JL, Wakschlag LS. Editorial: Defining the clinical boundary of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder symptoms in youth. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2021; 60(2): 216-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.12.019] [PMID: 33359030]
[114]
Freeman AJ, Youngstrom EA, Youngstrom JK, Findling RL. Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder in a community mental health clinic: Prevalence, comorbidity and correlates. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2016; 26(2): 123-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2015.0061] [PMID: 26745325]
[115]
Mulraney M, Silk TJ, Gulenc A, Efron D, Hazell P, Sciberras E. Persistence of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Affect Disord 2021; 278: 502-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.109] [PMID: 33017677]
[116]
Waxmonsky J, Pelham WE, Gnagy E, et al. The efficacy and tolerability of methylphenidate and behavior modification in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and severe mood dysregulation. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2008; 18(6): 573-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2008.065] [PMID: 19108662]
[117]
Baweja R, Belin PJ, Humphrey HH, et al. The effectiveness and tolerability of central nervous system stimulants in school-age children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder across home and school. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2016; 26(2): 154-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2015.0053] [PMID: 26771437]
[118]
Winters DE, Fukui S, Leibenluft E, Hulvershorn LA. Improvements in irritability with open-label methylphenidate treatment in youth with comorbid attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2018; 28(5): 298-305.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2017.0124] [PMID: 29708762]
[119]
Benarous X, Ferrafiat V, Zammit J, et al. Effective use of atomoxetine to treat six inpatient youths with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder without attention deficit disorder. CNS Spectr 2020; 25(4): 455-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1092852919001020] [PMID: 31218979]
[120]
Towbin K, Vidal-Ribas P, Brotman MA, et al. A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial of citalopram adjunctive to stimulant medication in youth with chronic severe irritability. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2020; 59(3): 350-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.05.015] [PMID: 31128268]
[121]
Aman MG, Bukstein OG, Gadow KD, et al. What does risperidone add to parent training and stimulant for severe aggression in child attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2014; 53(1): 47-60.e1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.09.022] [PMID: 24342385]
[122]
Barterian JA, Arnold LE, Brown NV, et al. Clinical implications from the treatment of severe childhood aggression (TOSCA) study: A re-analysis and integration of findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2017; 56(12): 1026-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.09.426] [PMID: 29173736]
[123]
Findling RL, Townsend L, Brown NV, et al. The treatment of severe childhood aggression study: 12 weeks of extended, blinded treatment in clinical responders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2017; 27(1): 52-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2016.0081] [PMID: 28212067]
[124]
Gadow KD, Brown NV, Arnold LE, et al. Severely aggressive children receiving stimulant medication versus stimulant and risperidone: 12-month follow-up of the TOSCA trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016; 55(6): 469-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.03.014] [PMID: 27238065]
[125]
Grondhuis SN, Farmer CA, Arnold LE, et al. Standardized observation analogue procedure in the treatment of severe childhood aggression study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2020; 30(1): 48-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2019.0109] [PMID: 31730370]
[126]
Turgay A, Binder C, Snyder R, Fisman S. Long-term safety and efficacy of risperidone for the treatment of disruptive behavior disorders in children with subaverage IQs. Pediatrics 2002; 110(3): e34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.110.3.e34] [PMID: 12205284]
[127]
Findling RL, Aman MG, Eerdekens M, Derivan A, Lyons B. Long-term, open-label study of risperidone in children with severe disruptive behaviors and below-average IQ. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161(4): 677-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.4.677] [PMID: 15056514]
[128]
Croonenberghs J, Fegert JM, Findling RL, De Smedt G, Van Dongen S. Risperidone in children with disruptive behavior disorders and subaverage intelligence: A 1-year, open-label study of 504 patients. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44(1): 64-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000145805.24274.09] [PMID: 15608545]
[129]
Pan PY, Fu AT, Yeh CB. Aripiprazole/methylphenidate combination in children and adolescents with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an open-label study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2018; 28(10): 682-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2018.0068] [PMID: 30148656]
[130]
Averna R, D’Agati E, Vicari S. Low-dose aripiprazole monotherapy in a young child with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2016; 6(2): 149-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2045125315591927] [PMID: 27141295]
[131]
Srinivas S, Parvataneni T, Makani R, Patel RS. Efficacy and safety of quetiapine for pediatric bipolar depression: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Cureus 2020; 12(6): e8407.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8407] [PMID: 32637286]
[132]
Greene RW, Biederman J, Zerwas S, Monuteaux MC, Goring JC, Faraone SV. Psychiatric comorbidity, family dysfunction, and social impairment in referred youth with oppositional defiant disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159(7): 1214-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1214] [PMID: 12091202]
[133]
Amerio A, Ossola P, Scagnelli F, et al. Safety and efficacy of lithium in children and adolescents: A systematic review in bipolar illness. Eur Psychiatry 2018; 54: 85-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.07.012] [PMID: 30130637]
[134]
Pisano S, Pozzi M, Catone G, et al. Putative mechanisms of action and clinical use of lithium in children and adolescents: A critical review. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17(4): 318-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570159X16666171219142120] [PMID: 29256353]
[135]
Delbello MP, Kowatch RA, Adler CM, et al. A double-blind randomized pilot study comparing quetiapine and divalproex for adolescent mania. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 45(3): 305-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000194567.63289.97] [PMID: 16540815]
[136]
Geller B, Luby JL, Joshi P, et al. A randomized controlled trial of risperidone, lithium, or divalproex sodium for initial treatment of bipolar I disorder, manic or mixed phase, in children and adolescents. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012; 69(5): 515-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1508] [PMID: 22213771]
[137]
Redden L, DelBello M, Wagner KD, et al. Long-term safety of divalproex sodium extended-release in children and adolescents with bipolar I disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2009; 19(1): 83-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2008.0106] [PMID: 19232026]
[138]
Cueva JE, Overall JE, Small AM, Armenteros JL, Perry R, Campbell M. Carbamazepine in aggressive children with conduct disorder: A double-blind and placebo-controlled study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35(4): 480-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199604000-00014] [PMID: 8919710]
[139]
Wagner KD, Kowatch RA, Emslie GJ, et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of oxcarbazepine in the treatment of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163(7): 1179-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.7.1179] [PMID: 16816222]
[140]
Yee CS, Hawken ER, Baldessarini RJ, Vázquez GH. Maintenance pharmacological treatment of juvenile bipolar disorder: Review and meta-analyses. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2019; 22(8): 531-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyz034] [PMID: 31211354]
[141]
Kirino E. Profile of aripiprazole in the treatment of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents. Adolesc Health Med Ther 2014; 5: 211-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S50015] [PMID: 25473324]
[142]
Meduri M, Gregoraci G, Baglivo V, Balestrieri M, Isola M, Brambilla P. A meta-analysis of efficacy and safety of aripiprazole in adult and pediatric bipolar disorder in randomized controlled trials and observational studies. J Affect Disord 2016; 191: 187-208.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.033] [PMID: 26674213]
[143]
Greenaway M, Elbe D. Focus on aripiprazole: A review of its use in child and adolescent psychiatry. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009; 18(3): 250-60.
[PMID: 19718428]
[144]
Rugino TA, Janvier YM. Aripiprazole in children and adolescents: Clinical experience. J Child Neurol 2005; 20(7): 603-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/08830738050200071301] [PMID: 16159529]
[145]
Barzman DH, DelBello MP, Adler CM, Stanford KE, Strakowski SM. The efficacy and tolerability of quetiapine versus divalproex for the treatment of impulsivity and reactive aggression in adolescents with co-occurring bipolar disorder and disruptive behavior disorder(s). J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2006; 16(6): 665-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.665] [PMID: 17201610]
[146]
Masi G, Milone A, Stawinoga A, Veltri S, Pisano S. Efficacy and safety of risperidone and quetiapine in adolescents with bipolar II disorder comorbid with conduct disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2015; 35(5): 587-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000371] [PMID: 26226481]
[147]
Tohen M, Kryzhanovskaya L, Carlson G, et al. Olanzapine versus placebo in the treatment of adolescents with bipolar mania. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164(10): 1547-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06111932] [PMID: 17898346]
[148]
Cichoń L, Janas-Kozik M, Siwiec A, Rybakowski JK. Clinical picture and treatment of bipolar affective disorder in children and adolescents. Psychiatr Pol 2020; 54(1): 35-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12740/PP/OnlineFirst/92740] [PMID: 32447355]
[149]
Frémaux T, Reymann JM, Chevreuil C, Bentué-Ferrer D. Prescription of olanzapine in children and adolescent psychiatric patients. Encephale 2007; 33(2): 188-96.
[PMID: 17675914]
[150]
Xiao L, Ganocy SJ, Findling RL, et al. Baseline characteristics and early response at week 1 predict treatment outcome in adolescents with bipolar manic or mixed episode treated with olanzapine: Results from a 3-week, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2017; 78(9): e1158-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.16m10923] [PMID: 28922591]
[151]
Baeza I, de la Serna E, Calvo-Escalona R, et al. Antipsychotic use in children and adolescents: A 1-year follow-up study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2014; 34(5): 613-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000190] [PMID: 25154009]
[152]
Kemp DE, Correll CU, Tohen M, et al. Associations among obesity, acute weight gain, and response to treatment with olanzapine in adolescent schizophrenia. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2013; 23(8): 522-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2012.0099] [PMID: 24111982]
[153]
Kumar T, Kathpal A, Demer J. Clozapine for treatment of aggression in non-psychotic adolescents. Asian J Psychiatr 2016; 22: 102-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2016.06.006] [PMID: 27520908]
[154]
National Institute for Health and care Excellence (NICE).. Psychosis and schizophrenia in children and young people: Recognition and management. RCPSych Publications: England 2013.
[155]
Pandina G, Kushner S, Karcher K, Haas M. An open-label, multicenter evaluation of the long-term safety and efficacy of risperidone in adolescents with schizophrenia. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 2012; 6(1): 23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-6-23] [PMID: 22676070]
[156]
Haas M, Unis AS, Armenteros J, Copenhaver MD, Quiroz JA, Kushner SF. A 6-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of risperidone in adolescents with schizophrenia. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2009; 19(6): 611-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2008.0144] [PMID: 20035579]
[157]
Solmi M, Fornaro M, Ostinelli EG, et al. Safety of 80 antidepressants, antipsychotics, anti-attention-deficit/hyperactivity medications and mood stabilizers in children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders: A large scale systematic meta-review of 78 adverse effects. World Psychiatry 2020; 19(2): 214-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wps.20765] [PMID: 32394557]
[158]
Putignano D, Clavenna A, Reale L, Bonati M. The evidence-based choice for antipsychotics in children and adolescents should be guaranteed. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2019; 75(6): 769-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00228-019-02641-0] [PMID: 30729258]
[159]
Coustals N, Ménard ML, Cohen D. Aripiprazole in Children and Adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2021; 31(1): 4-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2020.0014] [PMID: 32931315]
[160]
Matsumoto H, Ishigooka J, Ono H, Tadori Y. Safety and efficacy from a 6-week double-blind study and a 52-week open-label extension of aripiprazole in adolescents with schizophrenia in Japan. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2018; 72(9): 701-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12681] [PMID: 29774635]
[161]
Findling RL, Robb A, Nyilas M, et al. A multiple-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of oral aripiprazole for treatment of adolescents with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165(11): 1432-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07061035] [PMID: 18765484]
[162]
Robb AS, Carson WH, Nyilas M, et al. Changes in positive and negative syndrome scale-derived hostility factor in adolescents with schizophrenia treated with aripiprazole: Post hoc analysis of randomized clinical trial data. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2010; 20(1): 33-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2008.0163] [PMID: 20166794]
[163]
Dittmann RW, Meyer E, Freisleder FJ, et al. Effectiveness and tolerability of olanzapine in the treatment of adolescents with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders: Results from a large, prospective, open-label study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2008; 18(1): 54-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.0137] [PMID: 18294089]
[164]
Quintana H, Wilson MS II, Purnell W, Layman AK, Mercante D. An open-label study of olanzapine in children and adolescents with schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Pract 2007; 13(2): 86-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.pra.0000265765.25495.e0] [PMID: 17414684]
[165]
Xia L, Li WZ, Liu HZ, Hao R, Zhang XY. Olanzapine versus risperidone in children and adolescents with psychosis: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2018; 28(4): 244-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2017.0120] [PMID: 29356569]
[166]
Pagsberg AK, Jeppesen P, Klauber DG, et al. Quetiapine extended release versus aripiprazole in children and adolescents with first-episode psychosis: The multicentre, double-blind, randomised tolerability and efficacy of antipsychotics (TEA) trial. Lancet Psychiatry 2017; 4(8): 605-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30166-9] [PMID: 28599949]
[167]
Swadi HS, Craig BJ, Pirwani NZ, Black VC, Buchan JC, Bobier CM. A trial of quetiapine compared with risperidone in the treatment of first onset psychosis among 15- to 18-year-old adolescents. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2010; 25(1): 1-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YIC.0b013e3283320511] [PMID: 19809337]
[168]
Arango C, Ng-Mak D, Finn E, Byrne A, Loebel A. Lurasidone compared to other atypical antipsychotic monotherapies for adolescent schizophrenia: A systematic literature review and network meta-analysis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2020; 29(9): 1195-205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-019-01425-2] [PMID: 31758359]
[169]
Goldman R, Loebel A, Cucchiaro J, Deng L, Findling RL. Efficacy and safety of lurasidone in adolescents with schizophrenia: A 6-week, randomized placebo-controlled study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2017; 27(6): 516-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2016.0189] [PMID: 28475373]
[170]
Correll CU, Findling RL, Tocco M, Pikalov A, Deng L, Goldman R. Safety and effectiveness of lurasidone in adolescents with schizophrenia: Results of a 2-year, open-label extension study. CNS 2022; 27(1): 118-28.
[PMID: 33077012]
[171]
Rachamallu V, Elberson BW, Vutam E, Aligeti M. Off-Label use of clozapine in children and adolescents-a literature review. Am J Ther 2019; 26(3): e406-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MJT.0000000000000894] [PMID: 31082865]
[172]
Patel NC, Crismon ML, Hoagwood K, Jensen PS. Unanswered questions regarding atypical antipsychotic use in aggressive children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2005; 15(2): 270-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2005.15.270] [PMID: 15910211]
[173]
Kranzler H, Roofeh D, Gerbino-Rosen G, et al. Clozapine: Its impact on aggressive behavior among children and adolescents with schizophrenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44(1): 55-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000145371.23122.5a] [PMID: 15608544]
[174]
Schimmelmann BG, Schmidt SJ, Carbon M, Correll CU. Treatment of adolescents with early-onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders: In search of a rational, evidence-informed approach. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2013; 26(2): 219-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32835dcc2a] [PMID: 23364281]
[175]
Sagreiya H, Chen YR, Kumarasamy NA, Ponnusamy K, Chen D, Das AK. Differences in antipsychotic-related adverse events in adult, pediatric, and geriatric populations. Cureus 2017; 9(2): e1059.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.1059] [PMID: 28465867]
[176]
Gogtay N, Rapoport J. Clozapine use in children and adolescents. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2008; 9(3): 459-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14656566.9.3.459] [PMID: 18220495]
[177]
Mattai A, Fung L, Bakalar J, et al. Adjunctive use of lithium carbonate for the management of neutropenia in clozapine-treated children. Hum Psychopharmacol 2009; 24(7): 584-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hup.1056] [PMID: 19743394]
[178]
Fortea A, Ilzarbe D, Espinosa L, et al. Long-acting injectable atypical antipsychotic use in adolescents: An observational study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2018; 28(4): 252-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2017.0096] [PMID: 29381388]
[179]
Petrić D, Rački V, Gačo N, Kaštelan A, Graovac M. Retrospective analysis of the effectiveness and tolerability of long-acting paliperidone palmitate antipsychotic in adolescent first-episode schizophrenia patients. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2019; 29(3): 197-204.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2018.0044] [PMID: 30758986]
[180]
Der-Nigoghossian C, Tesoro EP, Strein M, Brophy GM. Principles of pharmacotherapy of seizures and status epilepticus. Semin Neurol 2020; 40(6): 681-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1718721] [PMID: 33176370]
[181]
Schifano F, Orsolini L, Duccio Papanti G, Corkery JM. Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry. World Psychiatry 2015; 14(1): 15-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wps.20174] [PMID: 25655145]
[182]
Schifano F, Orsolini L, Papanti D, Corkery J. NPS: Medical consequences associated with their intake. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32: 351-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_15] [PMID: 27272067]
[183]
Orsolini L, Chiappini S, Corkery JM, Guirguis A, Papanti D, Schifano F. The use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in young people and their role in mental health care: A systematic review. Expert Rev Neurother 2019; 19(12): 1253-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2019.1666712] [PMID: 31503507]
[184]
Shah R, Baum CR. Synthetic drug intoxication in children: Recognition and management in the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Med Pract 2018; 15(5): 1-20.
[PMID: 29697923]
[185]
Stewart DG, Brown SA. Withdrawal and dependency symptoms among adolescent alcohol and drug abusers. Addiction 1995; 90(5): 627-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1995.tb02201.x] [PMID: 7795499]
[186]
Caccia S. Safety and pharmacokinetics of atypical antipsychotics in children and adolescents. Paediatr Drugs 2013; 15(3): 217-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40272-013-0024-6] [PMID: 23588704]
[187]
Masi G, Liboni F. Management of schizophrenia in children and adolescents: Focus on pharmacotherapy. Drugs 2011; 71(2): 179-208.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11585350-000000000-00000] [PMID: 21275445]
[188]
Lamminpää A. Acute alcohol intoxication among children and adolescents. Eur J Pediatr 1994; 153(12): 868-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01954735] [PMID: 7859787]
[189]
Crippa JA, Derenusson GN, Chagas MH, et al. Pharmacological interventions in the treatment of the acute effects of cannabis: A systematic review of literature. Harm Reduct J 2012; 9(1): 7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1477-7517-9-7] [PMID: 22273390]
[190]
Bhana N, Foster RH, Olney R, Plosker GL. Olanzapine: An updated review of its use in the management of schizophrenia. Drugs 2001; 61(1): 111-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200161010-00011] [PMID: 11217867]
[191]
Pianca TGSA, Sordi AO, Hartmann TC, von Diemen L. Identification and initial management of intoxication by alcohol and other drugs in the pediatric emergency room. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2017; 93(Suppl. 1): 46-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2017.06.015] [PMID: 28886402]
[192]
Santillanes G, Gerson RS. Special considerations in the pediatric psychiatric population. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2017; 40(3): 463-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2017.05.009] [PMID: 28800802]
[193]
Feuer V, Rocker J, Saggu BM, Andrus JM. Best practices in managing child and adolescent behavioral health emergencies. Pediatr Emerg Med Pract 2018; 15(1): 1-28.
[PMID: 29261480]
[194]
Baker M, Carlson GA. What do we really know about PRN use in agitated children with mental health conditions: A clinical review. Evid Based Ment Health 2018; 21(4): 166-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2018-300039] [PMID: 30361330]
[195]
Young CM, Findling RL. Pharmacologic treatment of adolescent and child schizophrenia. Expert Rev Neurother 2004; 4(1): 53-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14737175.4.1.53] [PMID: 15853615]
[196]
Sun AY, Woods S, Findling RL, Stepanova E. Safety considerations in the psychopharmacology of pediatric bipolar disorder. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2019; 18(9): 777-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14740338.2019.1637416] [PMID: 31242784]
[197]
Baumann P, Hiemke C, Ulrich S, et al. The AGNP-TDM expert group consensus guidelines: Therapeutic drug monitoring in psychiatry. Pharmacopsychiatry 2004; 37(6): 243-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-832687] [PMID: 15551191]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
7
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy