Generic placeholder image

Coronaviruses

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2666-7967
ISSN (Online): 2666-7975

Mini-Review Article

Alternative Management of Cushing's Syndrome During Covid-19 Pandemic

Author(s): Serghei Covantev*, Stanislav I. Volkov* and Kristina I. Samsonova

Volume 3, Issue 1, 2022

Published on: 12 September, 2021

Article ID: e221221196398 Pages: 8

DOI: 10.2174/2666796702666210913095645

Price: $65

Abstract

Cushing's syndrome results from prolonged exposure to glucocorticoids. Surgery is often the first-line treatment for this condition, regardless of etiology. However, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a decrease in surgical procedures due to the risk of infection transmission. There are still emergency cases of Cushing’s syndrome that are admitted to the hospital and require urgent management. The current treatment should be focused on medical management and endovascular embolization in selective cases. Embolization can be performed in facilities where there aretrained personnel with experience in adrenal embolization. Surgery, which traditionally is a first-line therapy, can increase the risk of infection, therefore, it should be avoided. The current review provides a brief description of the possible options for the management of adrenal Cushing’s syndrome during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Keywords: Cushing’s syndrome, adrenal embolization, adrenal steroidogenesis inhibitors, adrenalectomy, adrenal surgery, COVID-19.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
Newell-Price J, Bertagna X, Grossman AB, Nieman LK. Cushing's syndrome. Lancet (London, England) 2006; 367(9522): 1605-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68699-6]
[2]
Mantero F, Terzolo M, Arnaldi G, et al. A survey on adrenal incidentaloma in Italy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85(2): 637-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.85.2.637] [PMID: 10690869]
[3]
Sharma ST, Nieman LK, Feelders RA. Cushing’s syndrome: epidemiology and developments in disease management. Clin Epidemiol 2015; 7: 281-93.
[PMID: 25945066]
[4]
Lacroix A, Bourdeau I. Bilateral adrenal cushing’s syndrome: macronodular adrenal hyperplasia and primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2005; 34(2): 441-458, x. [x.].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2005.01.004] [PMID: 15850852]
[5]
Lutgers HL, Vergragt J, Dong PV, et al. Severe hypercortisolism: a medical emergency requiring urgent intervention. Crit Care Med 2010; 38(7): 1598-601.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181e47b7a] [PMID: 20495451]
[6]
Torpy DJ, Mullen N, Ilias I, Nieman LK. Association of hypertension and hypokalemia with Cushing’s syndrome caused by ectopic ACTH secretion: a series of 58 cases. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002; 970: 134-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04419.x] [PMID: 12381548]
[7]
Greening JE, Brain CE, Perry LA, et al. Efficient short-term control of hypercortisolaemia by low-dose etomidate in severe paediatric Cushing’s disease. Horm Res 2005; 64(3): 140-3.
[PMID: 16192738]
[8]
Mettauer N, Brierley J. A novel use of etomidate for intentional adrenal suppression to control severe hypercortisolemia in childhood. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2009; 10(3): e37-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PCC.0b013e318198b096]
[9]
Nieman LK, Biller BM, Findling JW, et al. Treatment of cushing’s syndrome: An endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100(8): 2807-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-1818] [PMID: 26222757]
[10]
Guarnotta V, Ferrigno R, Martino M, et al. Glucocorticoid excess and COVID-19 disease. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2020; 1-12.
[PMID: 33025384]
[11]
Castinetti F, Brue T, Ragnarsson O. Radiotherapy as a tool for the treatment of Cushing’s disease. Eur J Endocrinol 2019; 180(5): D9-D18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EJE-19-0092] [PMID: 30970325]
[12]
Graham BS, Tucker WS Jr. Opportunistic infections in endogenous Cushing’s syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1984; 101(3): 334-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-101-3-334] [PMID: 6331781]
[13]
Scheffel RS, Dora JM, Weinert LS, Aquino V, Maia AL, Canani LH, et al. Invasive fungal infections in endogenous Cushing's syndrome. Infect Dis Rep 2010; 2(1): e4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/idr.2010.1281]
[14]
Pivonello R, Ferrigno R, Isidori AM, Biller BMK, Grossman AB, Colao A. COVID-19 and Cushing’s syndrome: recommendations for a special population with endogenous glucocorticoid excess. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2020; 8(8): 654-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30215-1] [PMID: 32531251]
[15]
Pivonello R, Isidori AM, De Martino MC, Newell-Price J, Biller BM, Colao A. Complications of Cushing’s syndrome: state of the art. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2016; 4(7): 611-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(16)00086-3] [PMID: 27177728]
[16]
Sarlis NJ, Chanock SJ, Nieman LK. Cortisolemic indices predict severe infections in Cushing syndrome due to ectopic production of adrenocorticotropin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85(1): 42-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.85.1.42] [PMID: 10634361]
[17]
Ulinici M, Covantev S, Wingfield-Digby J, Beloukas A, Mathioudakis AG, Corlateanu A. Screening, diagnostic and prognostic tests for covid-19: A comprehensive review. Life (Basel) 2021; 11(6): 561.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life11060561] [PMID: 34198591]
[18]
Serban AL, Ferrante E, Carosi G, Indirli R, Arosio M, Mantovani G. COVID-19 in Cushing disease: experience of a single tertiary centre in Lombardy. J Endocrinol Invest 2021; 44(6): 1335-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40618-020-01419-x] [PMID: 32915404]
[19]
Besharati S, Abbaspourrad Z, Chiti H, Parsamanesh N. A young man suspicious for cushing’s syndrome with coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19): A case report. Acta Med Iran 59(3): 173-6.
[20]
Rehman T. Image of the month: Diagnostic and therapeutic challenges in the management of ectopic ACTH syndrome: a perfect storm of hypercortisolism, hyperglycaemia and COVID-19. Clin Med (Lond) 2021; 21(3): 231-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7861/clinmed.2021-0005] [PMID: 34001576]
[21]
Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; 323(11): 1061-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585] [PMID: 32031570]
[22]
Myles PS, Maswime S. Mitigating the risks of surgery during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet 2020; 396(10243): 2-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31256-3] [PMID: 32479826]
[23]
Nepogodiev D, Bhangu A, Glasbey JC, Li E, Omar OM, Simoes JFF, et al. Mortality and pulmonary complications in patients undergoing surgery with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection: an international cohort study. Lancet 2020; 396(10243): 27-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31182-X] [PMID: 32479829]
[24]
Torrance HD, Pearse RM, O’Dwyer MJ. Does major surgery induce immune suppression and increase the risk of postoperative infection? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2016; 29(3): 376-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ACO.0000000000000331] [PMID: 26963469]
[25]
Cruz FF, Rocco PRM, Pelosi P. Anti-inflammatory properties of anesthetic agents. Critical care 2017; 21(1): 67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51908-1_32]
[26]
Hasenmajer V, Sbardella E, Sciarra F, Minnetti M, Isidori AM, Venneri MA. The immune system in cushing’s syndrome. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2020; 31(9): 655-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2020.04.004] [PMID: 32387195]
[27]
Shimizu K, Iyoda T, Okada M, Yamasaki S, Fujii SI. Immune suppression and reversal of the suppressive tumor microenvironment. Int immunol 2018; 30(10): 445-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/intimm/dxy042]
[28]
Newell-Price J, Nieman LK, Reincke M, Tabarin A. Endocrinology in the time of covid-19: Management of cushing’s syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol 2020; 183(1): G1-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EJE-20-0352] [PMID: 32380475]
[29]
Small M, Lowe GD, Forbes CD, Thomson JA. Thromboembolic complications in Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1983; 19(4): 503-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.1983.tb00025.x] [PMID: 6627701]
[30]
Koutroumpi S, Daidone V, Sartori MT, et al. Venous thromboembolism in patients with Cushing’s syndrome: need of a careful investigation of the prothrombotic risk profile. Pituitary 2013; 16(2): 175-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11102-012-0398-4] [PMID: 22585010]
[31]
Babic B, De Roulet A, Volpe A, Nilubol N. Is VTE prophylaxis necessary on discharge for patients undergoing adrenalectomy for cushing syndrome? J Endocr Soc 2018; 3(2): 304-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/js.2018-00278] [PMID: 30652131]
[32]
Boscaro M, Sonino N, Scarda A, et al. Anticoagulant prophylaxis markedly reduces thromboembolic complications in Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87(8): 3662-6.
[PMID: 12161492]
[33]
Malas MB, Naazie IN, Elsayed N, Mathlouthi A, Marmor R, Clary B. Thromboembolism risk of COVID-19 is high and associated with a higher risk of mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine 2020; 29: 100639.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100639] [PMID: 33251499]
[34]
Pivonello R, De Leo M, Cozzolino A, Colao A. The treatment of cushing’s disease. Endocr Rev 2015; 36(4): 385-486.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.2013-1048] [PMID: 26067718]
[35]
Quinkler M, Ekman B, Zhang P, Isidori AM, Murray RD. Mortality data from the European adrenal insufficiency registry-patient characterization and associations. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2018; 89(1): 30-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cen.13609] [PMID: 29682773]
[36]
Ahmad S, Ong R, Malhotra A, Siskin G, Shawa H. A case of cushing syndrome successfully treated with superselective adrenal arterial embolization of an adrenocortical adenoma with a 6-month follow-up. AACE Clin Case Rep 2018; 4(4): e275-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4158/ACCR-2017-0012]
[37]
Blunt SB, Pirmohamed M, Chatterjee VK, Burrin JM, Allison DJ, Joplin GF. Use of adrenal arterial embolization in severe ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Postgrad Med J 1989; 65(766): 575-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.65.766.575] [PMID: 2602257]
[38]
Ueno K, Nakajo M, Miyazono N, Inoue H, Nishida H, Tsuchimochi S, et al. Transcatheter adrenal arterial embolization of cortisol-producing tumors. Two cases of cushing's syndrome. Acta radiologica (Stockholm, Sweden : 1987) 1999; 40(1): 100-3.
[39]
Yu D, Bharij A, Marquez F, Sher N, Khan A, Ardiles T. A case of cushing syndrome secondary to ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone-producing pheochromocytoma managed with ketoconazole and etomidate infusion as therapeutic bridge to adrenal artery embolization. Chest 2020; 158(4): A886.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.08.824]
[40]
Fowler AM, Burda JF, Kim SK. Adrenal artery embolization: anatomy, indications, and technical considerations. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2013; 201(1): 190-201.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/AJR.12.9507] [PMID: 23789675]
[41]
Ierardi AM, Petrillo M, Patella F, et al. Interventional radiology of the adrenal glands: current status. Gland Surg 2018; 7(2): 147-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/gs.2018.01.04] [PMID: 29770310]
[42]
Ginat DT, Saad WE, Turba UC. Transcatheter renal artery embolization for management of renal and adrenal tumors. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol 2010; 13(2): 75-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.tvir.2010.02.003] [PMID: 20540917]
[43]
O’Keeffe FN, Carrasco CH, Charnsangavej C, Richli WR, Wallace S. Arterial embolization of adrenal tumors: results in nine cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1988; 151(4): 819-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/ajr.151.4.819] [PMID: 3262286]
[44]
Polat B, Fassnacht M, Pfreundner L, et al. Radiotherapy in adrenocortical carcinoma. Cancer 2009; 115(13): 2816-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.24331] [PMID: 19402169]
[45]
Bodei L, Mueller-Brand J, Baum RP, et al. The joint IAEA, EANM, and SNMMI practical guidance on peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRNT) in neuroendocrine tumours. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013; 40(5): 800-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00259-012-2330-6] [PMID: 23389427]
[46]
Daniel E, Newell-Price JD. Therapy of endocrine disease: steroidogenesis enzyme inhibitors in Cushing’s syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 172(6): R263-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EJE-14-1014] [PMID: 25637072]
[47]
Castinetti F, Guignat L, Giraud P, et al. Ketoconazole in Cushing’s disease: is it worth a try? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99(5): 1623-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-3628] [PMID: 24471573]
[48]
Daniel E, Aylwin S, Mustafa O, et al. Effectiveness of metyrapone in treating cushing’s syndrome: A retrospective multicenter study in 195 patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100(11): 4146-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2616] [PMID: 26353009]
[49]
Dougherty JA, Desai DS, Herrera JB. Osilodrostat: A novel steroidogenesis inhibitor to treat cushing’s disease. Ann Pharmacother 2020; 55(8): 1050-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1060028020968808] [PMID: 33143437]
[50]
Trainer PJ. New options for the medical treatment of Cushing’s syndrome. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2013; 17(2): 245-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.109685] [PMID: 23776896]
[51]
Paragliola RM, Torino F, Papi G, Locantore P, Pontecorvi A, Corsello SM. Role of mitotane in adrenocortical carcinoma - review and state of the art. Eur Endocrinol 2018; 14(2): 62-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.17925/EE.2018.14.2.62] [PMID: 30349596]
[52]
Pozza C, Graziadio C, Giannetta E, Lenzi A, Isidori AM. Management strategies for aggressive cushing’s syndrome: From macroadenomas to ectopics. J Oncol 2012; 2012: 685213.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/685213] [PMID: 22934113]
[53]
Allolio B, Stuttmann R, Leonhard U, Fischer H, Winkelmann W. Adrenocortical suppression by a single induction dose of etomidate. Klin Wochenschr 1984; 62(21): 1014-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01711723] [PMID: 6096626]
[54]
Carroll TB, Peppard WJ, Herrmann DJ, et al. Continuous etomidate infusion for the management of severe cushing syndrome: Validation of a standard protocol. J Endocr Soc 2018; 3(1): 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/js.2018-00269] [PMID: 30560224]
[55]
Brown DR, East HE, Eilerman BS, et al. Clinical management of patients with Cushing syndrome treated with mifepristone: consensus recommendations. Clin Diabetes Endocrinol 2020; 6(1): 18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40842-020-00105-4] [PMID: 33292727]
[56]
Carmichael JD, Fleseriu M. Mifepristone: is there a place in the treatment of Cushing’s disease? Endocrine 2013; 44(1): 20-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12020-012-9846-1] [PMID: 23192246]
[57]
Chang AY, Mirfakhraee S, King EE, Mercado JU, Donegan DM, Yuen KC. Mifepristone as bridge or adjunct therapy in the management of challenging cushing disease cases. Clin Med Insights Endocrinol Diabetes 2021; 14: 1179551421994102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1179551421994102] [PMID: 33746521]
[58]
Korlym® (mifepristone) 300 mg tablets [prescribing information]. Menlo Park, CA: Corcept therapeutics incorporated. 2019. Available from: https://www.korlym.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/K-00017-NOV-2019_electronic-PI_r8_FINAL.pdf [Accessed 10 June 2021]
[59]
Wong SWP, Yap YW, Narayanan RP, et al. Etomidate in the management of severe Cushing’s disease and MRSA bacteraemia in a district general hospital in the United Kingdom. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Rep 2019; 2019: 2019.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EDM-19-0044] [PMID: 31967974]
[60]
Soh LM, Gunganah K, Akker SA, et al. Etomidate in the emergency management of hypercortisolemia. Eur J Endocrinol 2012; 167(5): 727-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EJE-12-0698] [PMID: 22930488]
[61]
Li J, Fan J-G. Characteristics and mechanism of liver injury in 2019 coronavirus disease. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2020; 8(1): 13-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14218/JCTH.2020.00019] [PMID: 32274341]
[62]
Barbot M, Ceccato F, Scaroni C. Consideration on TMPRSS2 and the risk of COVID-19 infection in Cushing’s syndrome. Endocrine 2020; 69(2): 235-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12020-020-02390-6] [PMID: 32578011]
[63]
Pivonello R, Fleseriu M, Newell-Price J, et al. Efficacy and safety of osilodrostat in patients with Cushing’s disease (LINC 3): a multicentre phase III study with a double-blind, randomised withdrawal phase. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2020; 8(9): 748-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30240-0] [PMID: 32730798]
[64]
Ortiz LD, Syro LV, Scheithauer BW, Rotondo F, Uribe H, Fadul CE, et al. Temozolomide in aggressive pituitary adenomas and carcinomas. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2012; 67(Suppl 1): 119-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.6061/clinics/2012(Sup01)20]
[65]
Gilis-Januszewska A, Wilusz M, Pantofliński J, et al. Temozolomide therapy for aggressive pituitary Crooke’s cell corticotropinoma causing Cushing’s Disease - a case report with literature review. Endokrynol Pol 2018; 69(3): 306-12.
[PMID: 29319131]
[66]
Yuno A, Kenmotsu Y, Takahashi Y, et al. Successful management of a patient with active Cushing’s disease complicated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia. Endocr J 2021; 68(4): 477-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.EJ20-0613] [PMID: 33361650]
[67]
Al-Samkari H. Finding the optimal thromboprophylaxis dose in patients with covid-19. JAMA 2021; 325(16): 1613-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.4295] [PMID: 33734290]
[68]
Wagner J, Langlois F, Lim DST, McCartney S, Fleseriu M. Hypercoagulability and risk of venous thromboembolic events in endogenous cushing’s syndrome: A systematic meta-analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 9: 805.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2018.00805] [PMID: 30745894]
[69]
Cuker A, Tseng EK, Nieuwlaat R, et al. American society of hematology 2021 guidelines on the use of anticoagulation for thromboprophylaxis in patients with COVID-19. Blood Adv 2021; 5(3): 872-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2020003763] [PMID: 33560401]
[70]
Haak HR, Caekebeke-Peerlinck KM, van Seters AP, Briët E. Prolonged bleeding time due to mitotane therapy. Eur J Cancer 1991; 27(5): 638-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-5379(91)90233-4]
[71]
Gries A, Weis S, Herr A, et al. Etomidate and thiopental inhibit platelet function in patients undergoing infrainguinal vascular surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2001; 45(4): 449-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-6576.2001.045004449.x] [PMID: 11300383]
[72]
Hapangama DK, Critchley HOD, Henderson TA, Baird DT. Mifepristone-induced vaginal bleeding is associated with increased immunostaining for cyclooxygenase-2 and decrease in prostaglandin dehydrogenase in luteal phase endometrium. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87(11): 5229-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2002-020429] [PMID: 12414896]
[73]
Zijp TR, Toren-Wielema ML, Nannan Panday PV, Kosterink JGW, Berger SP, Touw DJ. Important interactions of immunosuppressants with experimental therapies for novel coronavirus disease (covid-19): How to act. Ther Drug Monit 2020; 42(4): 652-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FTD.0000000000000766] [PMID: 32433189]
[74]
Telbisz Á, Ambrus C, Mózner O, et al. Interactions of anti- COVID-19 drug candidates with multispecific ABC and OATP drug transporters. Pharmaceutics 2020; 13: 81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13010081]
[75]
Zhao Y, Harmatz JS, Epstein CR, et al. Favipiravir inhibits acetaminophen sulfate formation but minimally affects systemic pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2015; 80(5): 1076-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bcp.12644] [PMID: 25808818]
[76]
Kumar D, Trivedi N. Disease-drug and drug-drug interaction in COVID-19: Risk and assessment. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 139: 111642.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111642] [PMID: 33940506]
[77]
Gómez-Moreno G. Remdesivir-COVID-19: drug interactions in dentistry. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2020; 24(18): 9739-43.
[PMID: 33015819]
[78]
Butler CC, Dorward J, Yu L-M, Gbinigie O, Hayward G, Saville BR, et al. Azithromycin for community treatment of suspected COVID-19 in people at increased risk of an adverse clinical course in the UK (PRINCIPLE): a randomised, controlled, open-label, adaptive platform trial. Lancet 2021; 397(10279): 1063-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00461-X] [PMID: 33676597]
[79]
Echeverría-Esnal D, Martin-Ontiyuelo C, Navarrete-Rouco ME, et al. Azithromycin in the treatment of COVID-19: a review. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19(2): 147-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2020.1813024] [PMID: 32853038]
[80]
Wiśniowska B, Tylutki Z, Wyszogrodzka G, Polak S. Drug-drug interactions and QT prolongation as a commonly assessed cardiac effect - comprehensive overview of clinical trials. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2016; 17: 12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40360-016-0053-1] [PMID: 26960809]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy