Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Coronaviruses

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2666-7967
ISSN (Online): 2666-7975

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Systematic Review Article

History and Global Status of the New Coronavirus Covid-2019 and Aspects of Previous Infections of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV: A Systematic Review

Author(s): Amanda Pinato Alves da Costa*, Vinicius Lisboa da Rocha, Rogério Rodrigo Ramos, José Martins Pinto Neto, Wagner Rafael da Silva, Luis Lenin Vicente Pereira, Kelys Ramos, Tais Cristina Nascimento Marques, Idiberto José Zotarelli Filho and André Wilian Lozano

Volume 2, Issue 6, 2021

Published on: 18 January, 2021

Article ID: e130621190409 Pages: 9

DOI: 10.2174/2666796702666210118153843

Abstract

Introduction: Coronaviruses (CoV) is a diverse group of viruses that has been described in the literature since 1960, SARS, MERS, and the most recent SARS-CoV-2. This new virus is causing a worldwide pandemic outbreak in the first half of 2020, thousands of deaths, and a significant economic crisis.

Objective: Due to this new context, the present study aimed to conduct a systematic study review of the new Coronavirus's global status (COVID-2019) and its aspects compared to the previous SARS-CoV infections MERS-CoV.

Methods: The study was conducted from January to September 2020, 89 clinical cases were submitted to further analysis, and 77 studies were selected for systematic review under the PRISMA guidelines.

Conclusion: In some countries, the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic appears to be out of control. In case of suspicion, tests are essential to identify the early stages of infection. If necessary, patients need to go into quarantine, and other public health measures should be taken following the World Health Organization guidelines. Advanced support is needed to identify and isolate infected patients, especially vaccines and medicines that help control the virus and the epidemiological situation in each country. These measures are expected to reduce the rate of new cases of SARS-CoV-2.

Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, pandemic, contagion, coronavirus.

[1]
Sharmin R, Islam AB. A highly conserved WDYPKCDRA epitope in the RNA directed RNA polymerase of human coronaviruses can be used as epitope-based universal vaccine design. BMC Bioinformatics 2014; 15: 161.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-15-161] [PMID: 24884408]
[2]
Yang YJ, Hu YW. Molecular epidemiological study of human coronavirus OC43 in Shanghai from 2009-2016. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2018; 52(1): 55-61.
[PMID: 29334709]
[3]
De Sabato L, Lelli D, Faccin F, et al. Full genome characterization of two novel alpha-coronavirus species from Italian bats. Virus Res 2019; 260: 60-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2018.11.007] [PMID: 30447246]
[4]
Zheng Y, Shang J, Yang Y, et al. Lysosomal proteases are a determinant of coronavirus tropism. J Virol 2018; 92(24): 1-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01504-18] [PMID: 30258004]
[5]
Nobre AFS, Sousa RCM, Santos MC, et al. First detection of human coronaviruses associated with acute respiratory infection in Northern Brazil. Rev Pan-Amaz Saude 2014; 5: 37-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5123/S2176-62232014000200005]
[6]
Wernery U, Lau SK, Woo PC. Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronavirus and dromedaries. Vet J 2017; 220: 75-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2016.12.020] [PMID: 28190501]
[7]
Tortorici MA, Veesler D. Structural insights into coronavirus entry. Adv Virus Res 2019; 105: 93-116.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.aivir.2019.08.002] [PMID: 31522710]
[8]
Burki TK. Coronavirus in China. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8(3): 238.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30056-4] [PMID: 32027848]
[9]
Higgins J, Green S. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions Version 510. United Kingdom: The Cochrane Collaboration 2011. updated March 2011
[10]
Poutanen SM, Low DE, Henry B, et al. Identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Canada. N Engl J Med 2003; 348(20): 1995-2005.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030634] [PMID: 12671061]
[11]
Franco-Paredes C, Kuri-Morales P, Alvarez-Lucas C, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome: A global overview of the epidemic. Salud Publica Mex 2003; 45(3): 211-20.
[PMID: 12870423]
[12]
WHO. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)- Republic of Korea. 2015. Available from: https://www.who.int/csr/don/25-october-2015-mers-korea/en/
[13]
Luk HKH, Li X, Fung J, Lau SKP, Woo PCY. Molecular epidemiology, evolution and phylogeny of SARS coronavirus. Infect Genet Evol 2019; 71: 21-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2019.03.001] [PMID: 30844511]
[14]
Chan KS, Zheng JP, Mok YW, et al. SARS: Prognosis, outcome and sequelae. Respirology 2003; 8(Suppl.): S36-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1843.2003.00522.x] [PMID: 15018132]
[15]
Han Y, Geng H, Feng W, et al. A follow-up study of 69 discharged SARS patients. J Tradit Chin Med 2003; 23(3): 214-7.
[PMID: 14535196]
[16]
Hamming I, Timens W, Bulthuis ML, Lely AT, Navis G, van Goor H. Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis. J Pathol 2004; 203(2): 631-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/path.1570] [PMID: 15141377]
[17]
Xiao S, Li Y, Wong TW, Hui DSC. Role of fomites in SARS transmission during the largest hospital outbreak in Hong Kong. PLoS One 2017; 12(7): e0181558.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181558] [PMID: 28727803]
[18]
Lau ALD, Chi I, Cummins RA, Lee TM, Chou KL, Chung LW. The sars (severe acute respiratory syndrome) pandemic in hong kong: Effects on the subjective wellbeing of elderly and younger people. Aging Ment Health 2008; 12(6): 746-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13607860802380607] [PMID: 19023726]
[19]
Afelt A, Frutos R, Devaux C. Bats, coronaviruses, and deforestation: Toward the emergence of novel infectious diseases? Front Microbiol 2018; 9: 702.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00702] [PMID: 29696007]
[20]
Yoo JK, Kim TS, Hufford MM, Braciale TJ. Viral infection of the lung: Host response and sequelae. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 132(6): 1263-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.06.006] [PMID: 23915713]
[21]
Holmes KV. SARS coronavirus: A new challenge for prevention and therapy. J Clin Invest 2003; 111(11): 1605-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI18819] [PMID: 12782660]
[22]
Dye C, Gay N. Epidemiology. Modeling the SARS epidemic. Science 2003; 300(5627): 1884-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1086925] [PMID: 12766208]
[23]
Sampathkumar P, Temesgen Z, Smith TF, Thompson RL. SARS: Epidemiology, clinical presentation, management, and infection control measures. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78(7): 882-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4065/78.7.882] [PMID: 12839084]
[24]
Hemida MG, Chu DKW, Poon LLM, et al. MERS coronavirus in dromedary camel herd, Saudi Arabia. Emerg Infect Dis 2014; 20(7): 1231-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2007.140571] [PMID: 24964193]
[25]
Chong YP, Song JY, Seo YB, Choi JP, Shin HS. Antiviral treatment guidelines for middle east respiratory syndrome. Infect Chemother 2015; 47(3): 212-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3947/ic.2015.47.3.212] [PMID: 26483999]
[26]
Hemida MG, Perera RA, Wang P, et al. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus seroprevalence in domestic livestock in Saudi Arabia, 2010 to 2013. Euro Surveill 2013; 18(50): 20659-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES2013.18.50.20659] [PMID: 24342517]
[27]
Zhou J, Chu H, Li C, et al. Active replication of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and aberrant induction of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in human macrophages: Implications for pathogenesis. J Infect Dis 2014; 209(9): 1331-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit504] [PMID: 24065148]
[28]
Gompf SG, Bronze MS, Wallace MR, et al. Middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS).Medscape 2019; pp. 1-12.
[29]
Perlman S, Dandekar AA. Immunopathogenesis of coronavirus infections: Implications for SARS. Nat Rev Immunol 2005; 5(12): 917-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nri1732] [PMID: 16322745]
[30]
Hui DS, Azhar EI, Kim YJ, Memish ZA, Oh MD, Zumla A. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: Risk factors and determinants of primary, household, and nosocomial transmission. Lancet Infect Dis 2018; 18(8): e217-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30127-0] [PMID: 29680581]
[31]
Bleibtreua A, Bertineb M, Bertina C, et al. Focus on Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Med Mal Infect 2019; 19: 31054-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.medmal.2019.10.004] [PMID: 31727466]
[32]
Al-Abdallat MM, Payne DC, Alqasrawi S, et al. Hospital-associated outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: A serologic, epidemiologic, and clinical description. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59(9): 1225-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciu359] [PMID: 24829216]
[33]
Park WB, Jun KI, Kim G, et al. Correlation between pneumonia severity and pulmonary complications in middle east respiratory syndrome. J Korean Med Sci 2018; 33(24): e169.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2018.33.e169] [PMID: 29892209]
[34]
CDC. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) - frequently asked questions and answers. 2019. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/mers/faq.html
[35]
Arabi YM, Al-Omari A, Mandourah Y, et al. Critically ill patients with the middle east respiratory syndrome: A multicenter retrospective cohort study. Crit Care Med 2017; 45(10): 1683-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000002621] [PMID: 28787295]
[36]
Momattin H, Al-Ali AY, Al-Tawfiq JA. A Systematic Review of therapeutic agents for the treatment of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Travel Med Infect Dis 2019; 30: 9-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2019.06.012] [PMID: 31252170]
[37]
Zhao Z, Zhang F, Xu M, et al. Description and clinical treatment of an early outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangzhou, PR China. J Med Microbiol 2003; 52(Pt 8): 715-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.05320-0] [PMID: 12867568]
[38]
Chan JF, Chan KH, Kao RY, et al. Broad-spectrum antivirals for the emerging Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Infect 2013; 67(6): 606-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2013.09.029] [PMID: 24096239]
[39]
Ministério da Saúde, Secretaria de Estado de Saúde do Distrito Federal, Plano de Contingência, Brasíliaan DF. 2020. Available from: https://portalarquivos2.saude.gov.br/images/pdf/2020/fevereiro/13/plano-contingencia-coronavirus- COVID19.pdf
[40]
Ministério da Saúde, Plataforma Integrada de Vigilância em Saúde. Notificação de casos de doença pelo coronavírus 2019 (COVID-2019). 2020. Available from: http://plataforma.saude.gov.br/novocoronavirus/
[41]
Ministério da Saúde. Coronavírus//Brasil. Covid-19 painel coronavírus. 2020. Available from: https://covid.saude.gov.br/
[42]
Ministério da Saúde. Grupo Interministerial vai atuar no enfrentamento ao novo coronavírus. 2020. Available from: http://saude.gov.br/noticias/agencia-saude/46266-grupo-interministerial-vai-atuar-no-enfrentamento-ao-novo-coronavirus
[43]
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission dynamics in wuhan, china, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(13): 1199-207.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316] [PMID: 31995857]
[44]
Boni MF, Lemey P, Jiang X, et al. Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Nat Microbiol 2020; 5(11): 1408-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4] [PMID: 32724171]
[45]
Dhochak N, Singhal T, Kabra SK, Lodha R. Pathophysiology of covid-19: Why children fare better than adults? Indian J Pediatr 2020; 87(7): 537-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12098-020-03322-y] [PMID: 32410003]
[46]
Sousa MRN, Barros SS, Silva M, et al. Pathogenesis and treatment prospects for Covid-19: A review. Research Soc Dev 2020; 9: e05973730.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i7.3730]
[47]
Wenzhong L, Hualan L. COVID-19: Attacks the 1-beta chain of hemoglobinand captures the porphyrin to inhibit human heme metabolism. ChemRxiv 2020; 1-31.
[48]
Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ace2 and tmprss2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 2020; 181(2): 271-280.e8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052] [PMID: 32142651]
[49]
Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, et al. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science 2020; 367(6483): 1260-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb2507] [PMID: 32075877]
[50]
Ragab D, Salah Eldin H, Taeimah M, Khattab R, Salem R. The covid-19 cytokine storm; what we know so far. Front Immunol 2020; 11: 1446.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01446] [PMID: 32612617]
[51]
Tang Y, Liu J, Zhang D, Xu Z, Ji J, Wen C. Cytokine storm in covid-19: The current evidence and treatment strategies. Front Immunol 2020; 11: 1708.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01708] [PMID: 32754163]
[52]
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 507-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7] [PMID: 32007143]
[53]
Zhang W, Du RH, Li B, et al. Molecular and serological investigation of 2019-nCoV infected patients: Implication of multiple shedding routes. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 9(1): 386-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2020.1729071] [PMID: 32065057]
[54]
Jin YH, Cai L, Cheng ZS, et al. A rapid advice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infected pneumonia (standard version). Mil Med Res 2020; 7(1): 4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-0233-6] [PMID: 32029004]
[55]
Guo YR, Cao QD, Hong ZS, et al. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak - an update on the status. Mil Med Res 2020; 7(1): 11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0] [PMID: 32169119]
[56]
Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in wuhan, china. JAMA 2020; 323(11): 1061-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585] [PMID: 32031570]
[57]
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 497-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5] [PMID: 31986264]
[58]
Li R, Pei S, Chen B, et al. Substantial undocumented infection facilitates the rapid dissemination of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Science 2020; 368(6490): 489-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3221] [PMID: 32179701]
[59]
Tang JW, Tambyah PA, Hui DSC. Emergence of a novel coronavirus causing respiratory illness from Wuhan, China. J Infect 2020; 80(3): 350-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.01.014] [PMID: 32001309]
[60]
Williamson EJ, Walker AJ, Bhaskaran K, et al. Factors associated with COVID-19-related death using opensafely. Nature 2020; 584(7821): 430-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4] [PMID: 32640463]
[61]
Albashir AAD. The potential impacts of obesity on COVID-19. Clin Med (Lond) 2020; 20(4): e109-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7861/clinmed.2020-0239] [PMID: 32571783]
[62]
Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020; 395(10229): 1054-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30566-3] [PMID: 32171076]
[63]
Holmes L Jr, Enwere M, Williams J, et al. Black-white risk differentials in covid-19 (sars-cov2) transmission, mortality and case fatality in the united states: Translational epidemiologic perspective and challenges. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(12): 4322.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124322] [PMID: 32560363]
[64]
CDC. Covid-19 in racial and ethnic minority groups. 2020. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/racial-ethnic-minorities.html
[65]
Carotti M, Salaffi F, Sarzi-Puttini P, et al. Chest CT features of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia: Key points for radiologists. Radiol Med (Torino) 2020; 125(7): 636-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11547-020-01237-4] [PMID: 32500509]
[66]
Liu M, He P, Liu HG, et al. [Clinical characteristics of 30 medical workers infected with new coronavirus pneumonia]. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2020; 43(3): 209-14.
[PMID: 32164090]
[67]
Lee KH, Yoon S, Jeong GH, et al. Efficacy of corticosteroids in patients with sars, mers and covid-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Med 2020; 9(8): E2392.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm9082392] [PMID: 32726951]
[68]
Recovery (randomised evaluation of COVID-19 therapy). Low-cost dexamethasone reduces death by up to one third in hospitalised patients with severe respiratory complications of COVID-19. 2020. Available from: https://www.recoverytrial.net/files/recovery_dexamethasone_statement_160620_final.pdf
[69]
Selvaraj V, Dapaah-Afriyie K, Finn A, Flanigan TP. Short-term dexamethasone in sars-cov-2 patients. R I Med J (2013) 2020; 103(6): 39-43.
[PMID: 32570995]
[70]
Theoharides TC, Conti P. Dexamethasone for covid-19? Not so fast. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 2020; 34(3): 1241-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.23812/20-EDITORIAL_1-5] [PMID: 32551464]
[71]
Tang N, Bai H, Chen X, Gong J, Li D, Sun Z. Anticoagulant treatment is associated with decreased mortality in severe coronavirus disease 2019 patients with coagulopathy. J Thromb Haemost 2020; 18(5): 1094-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jth.14817] [PMID: 32220112]
[72]
Gauna MEG, Bernava JL. Diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations for the Thrombotic Immune Response Associated to COVID-19 (RITAC). CorSalud 2020; 12: 60-3.
[73]
Sobreira ML, Marques MA. Anticoagulants as panacea in COVID-19 infection. J Vasc Bras 2020; 19: e20200063.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1677-5449.200063]
[74]
John HB, Kay MT, Lori ED, et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of covid-19 - preliminary report. N Engl J Med 2020; 1-12.
[75]
Kochhar S, Salmon DA. Planning for COVID-19 vaccines safety surveillance. Vaccine 2020; 38(40): 6194-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.07.013] [PMID: 32684499]
[76]
Lambert PH, Ambrosino DM, Andersen SR, et al. Consensus summary report for CEPI/BC March 12-13, 2020 meeting: Assessment of risk of disease enhancement with COVID-19 vaccines. Vaccine 2020; 38(31): 4783-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.05.064] [PMID: 32507409]
[77]
Logunov DY, Dolzhikova IV, Zubkova OV, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine in two formulations: Two open, non-randomised phase 1/2 studies from Russia. Lancet 2020; 396(10255): 887-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31866-3] [PMID: 32896291]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
23
2
© 2025 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy