Login Register Cart 0
Mini-Review Article

Kratom依赖性和治疗选择：文献综述

卷 21, 期 15, 2020

页: [1566 - 1579] 页: 14

弟呕挨: 10.2174/1389450121666200719011653

价格: $65

摘要

Kratom，或Mitragyna speciosa Korth，是一种在东南亚流行的热带植物，被用作缓解各种疾病症状的传统药物。它被标记为具有明显的类似麻醉剂的特性的非典型阿片类药物，能够在滥用或滥用它的人中引起kratom依赖性。在世界范围内，使用kratom的普遍性急剧增加，引起医疗保健提供者的关注，尤其是对于kratom依赖的有效治疗选择的可用性。该手稿提供了有关克拉托姆的精神活性生物碱，克拉托依赖发生的基础的可能神经生物学和病理生理模型，以及克拉托依赖的临床表现和有效治疗选择的文献的全面叙述性综述。 kratom的精神活性生物碱，例如米塔吉宁（MG）和7-羟基米塔吉宁（7-HMG），充当部分mu阿片类激动剂，并诱导kratom依赖性。结果，经常使用kratom会导致戒断后的戒断症状，以及对吗啡的渴望，宽容和交叉宽容。报告的心理戒断症状包括情绪低落，焦虑，躁动，易怒和感觉紧张，而物理戒断症状包括肌痛和身体疼痛，关节痛，流泪，流鼻涕，打哈欠，失眠，腹泻，发烧感，食欲不振。 ，震颤，全身瘙痒，注意力不集中和发冷。定期服用克拉通的妇女新生儿中也有新生儿退缩症状，如口腔不耐受，躁动，烦躁和呕吐。舌下丁丙诺啡-纳洛酮（Suboxone）据报道是一种有前途的治疗方法，适用于依赖kratom的使用者进行排毒和维持替代疗法。住院排毒的其他治疗方法包括静脉注射可乐定以及口服二氢可待因和洛美定的组合。最后，我们添加了关于kratom依赖的研究空白的注释，这是未来研究应关注的空白。

关键词: Kratom，kratom戒断，kratom依赖，kratom依赖的神经生物学，kratom依赖的病理生理学，kratom依赖的治疗，米曲金宁，7-羟基米曲金宁。

« Previous Next »
图形摘要

[1]
Hassan Z, Muzaimi M, Navaratnam V, et al. From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37(2): 138-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012] [PMID: 23206666]
[2]
Gong F, Gu HP, Xu QT, Kang WY. Genus Mitragyna: ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological studies. Phytopharmacology 2012; 3(2): 263-72.
[3]
Arndt T, Claussen U, Güssregen B, et al. Kratom alkaloids and O-desmethyltramadol in urine of a “Krypton” herbal mixture consumer. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 208(1-3): 47-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.10.025] [PMID: 21112167]
[4]
Zawilska JB. “Legal highs” - new players in the old drama. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2011; 4(2): 122-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874473711104020122] [PMID: 21711229]
[5]
Logan BK, Reinhold LE, Xu A, Diamond FX. Identification of synthetic cannabinoids in herbal incense blends in the United States. J Forensic Sci 2012; 57(5): 1168-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02207.x] [PMID: 22834927]
[6]
Assanangkornchai S, Pattanasattayawong U, Samangsri N, Mukthong A. Substance use among high-school students in Southern Thailand: trends over 3 years (2002-2004). Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 86(2-3): 167-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.06.001] [PMID: 16837141]
[7]
Assanangkornchai S, Muekthong A, Sam-Angsri N, Pattanasattayawong U. The Use of Mitragynine speciosa (“Krathom”), an addictive plant, in Thailand. Subst Use Misuse 2007; 42(14): 2145-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826080701205869] [PMID: 18097996]
[8]
Veltri C, Grundmann O. Current perspectives on the impact of Kratom use. Subst Abuse Rehabil 2019; 10: 23-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/SAR.S164261] [PMID: 31308789]
[9]
Vicknasingam B, Narayanan S, Beng GT, Mansor SM. The informal use of ketum (Mitragyna speciosa) for opioid withdrawal in the northern states of peninsular Malaysia and implications for drug substitution therapy. Int J Drug Policy 2010; 21(4): 283-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.12.003] [PMID: 20092998]
[10]
Grundmann O. Patterns of Kratom use and health impact in the US-Results from an online survey. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 176: 63-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.03.007] [PMID: 28521200]
[11]
Gershman K, Timm K, Frank M, et al. Deaths in Colorado attributed to Kratom. N Engl J Med 2019; 380(1): 97-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1811055] [PMID: 30601742]
[12]
González-Lamothe R, Mitchell G, Gattuso M, Diarra MS, Malouin F, Bouarab K. Plant antimicrobial agents and their effects on plant and human pathogens. Int J Mol Sci 2009; 10(8): 3400-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms10083400] [PMID: 20111686]
[13]
Yang L, Wen KS, Ruan X, Zhao YX, Wei F, Wang Q. Response of plant secondary metabolites to environmental factors. Molecules 2018; 23(4): 762.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules23040762] [PMID: 29584636]
[14]
Verma N, Shukla S. Impact of various factors responsible for fluctuation in plant secondary metabolites. J Appl Res Med Aromat Plants 2015; 2(4): 105-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmap.2015.09.002]
[15]
Silva GL, Lee IS, Kinghorn AD. Special Problems with the Extraction of Plants Natural Products Isolation Methods in Biotechnology Humana Press 1998; 4: 343-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-256-2_12]
[16]
FDA investigated multistate outbreak of salmonella infections linked to products reported to contain kratom https://www.fda.gov/food/outbreaks-foodborne-illness/fda-investigated-multistate-outbreak-salmonella-infections-linked-products-reported-contain-kratom 19 May, 2020];
[17]
Brown PN, Lund JA, Murch SJ. A botanical, phytochemical and ethnomedicinal review of the genus Mitragyna korth: Implications for products sold as kratom. J Ethnopharmacol 2017; 202: 302-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.020] [PMID: 28330725]
[18]
Ali Z, Demiray H, Khan IA. Isolation, characterization, and NMR spectroscopic data of indole and oxindole alkaloids from Mitragyna speciosa. Tetrahedron Lett 2014; 55: 369-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tetlet.2013.11.031]
[19]
Warner ML, Kaufman NC, Grundmann O. The pharmacology and toxicology of kratom: from traditional herb to drug of abuse. Int J Legal Med 2016; 130(1): 127-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00414-015-1279-y] [PMID: 26511390]
[20]
Suwanlert S. A study of kratom eaters in Thailand. Bull Narc 1975; 27(3): 21-7.
[PMID: 1041694]
[21]
León F, Habib E, Adkins JE, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Cutler SJ. Phytochemical characterization of the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa grown in U.S.A. Nat Prod Commun 2009; 4(7): 907-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1934578X0900400705] [PMID: 19731590]
[22]
Raffa RB. The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a Non-Opium Source 1st ed, Florida: Boca Raton, CRC Press. 2014.
[23]
Takayama H. Chemistry and pharmacology of analgesic indole alkaloids from the rubiaceous plant, Mitragyna speciosa. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2004; 52(8): 916-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1248/cpb.52.916] [PMID: 15304982]
[24]
Pantano F, Tittarelli R, Mannocchi G, et al. Hepatotoxicity Induced by “the 3Ks”: Kava, Kratom and Khat. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17(4): 580.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms17040580] [PMID: 27092496]
[25]
Lu J, Wei H, Wu J, et al. Evaluation of the cardiotoxicity of mitragynine and its analogues using human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. PLoS One 2014; 9(12)e115648
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115648] [PMID: 25535742]
[26]
Kruegel AC, Gassaway MM, Kapoor A, et al. Synthetic and receptor signaling explorations of the mitragyna alkaloids: mitragynine as an atypical molecular framework for opioid receptor modulators. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138(21): 6754-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jacs.6b00360] [PMID: 27192616]
[27]
Bodnar RJ. Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2014. Peptides 2016; 75: 18-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2015.10.009] [PMID: 26551874]
[28]
Dhawan BN, Cesselin F, Raghubir R, et al. International Union of Pharmacology. XII. Classification of opioid receptors. Pharmacol Rev 1996; 48(4): 567-92.
[PMID: 8981566]
[29]
Gray AC, Coupar IM, White PJ. Comparison of opioid receptor distributions in the rat central nervous system. Life Sci 2006; 79(7): 674-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2006.02.021] [PMID: 16546223]
[30]
Ismail I, Wahab S, Sidi H, Das S, Lin LJ, Razali R. Kratom and future treatment for the opioid addiction and chronic pain: Periculo beneficium? Curr Drug Targets 2019; 20(2): 166-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1389450118666170425154120] [PMID: 28443503]
[31]
Chakrabarti S, Chang A, Liu NJ, Gintzler AR. Chronic opioid treatment augments caveolin-1 scaffolding: relevance to stimulatory μ-opioid receptor adenylyl cyclase signaling. J Neurochem 2016; 139(5): 737-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jnc.13852] [PMID: 27726130]
[32]
Zhang Z, Pan ZZ. Synaptic mechanism for functional synergism between delta- and mu-opioid receptors. J Neurosci 2010; 30(13): 4735-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5968-09.2010] [PMID: 20357124]
[33]
Law PY, Wong YH, Loh HH. Molecular mechanisms and regulation of opioid receptor signaling. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2000; 40: 389-430.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.40.1.389] [PMID: 10836142]
[34]
Váradi A, Marrone GF, Palmer TC, et al. Mitragynine/Corynantheidine pseudoindoxyls as opioid analgesics with Mu agonism and Delta antagonism, which do not recruit β-Arrestin-2. J Med Chem 2016; 59(18): 8381-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b00748] [PMID: 27556704]
[35]
Allouche S, Noble F, Marie N. Opioid receptor desensitization: mechanisms and its link to tolerance. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5: 280.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2014.00280] [PMID: 25566076]
[36]
Johnson SW, North RA. Opioids excite dopamine neurons by hyperpolarization of local interneurons. J Neurosci 1992; 12(2): 483-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.12-02-00483.1992] [PMID: 1346804]
[37]
Raehal KM, Bohn LM. β-arrestins: regulatory role and therapeutic potential in opioid and cannabinoid receptor-mediated analgesia. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2014; 219: 427-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-41199-1_22] [PMID: 24292843]
[38]
Singh D, Müller CP, Vicknasingam BK. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 139: 132-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.017] [PMID: 24698080]
[39]
Matsumoto K, Takayama H, Narita M, et al. MGM-9 [(E)-methyl 2-(3-ethyl-7a,12a-(epoxyethanoxy)-9-fluoro-1,2,3,4,6,7,12,12b-octahydro-8-methoxyindolo[2,3-a]quinolizin-2-yl)-3-methoxyacrylate], a derivative of the indole alkaloid mitragynine: a novel dual-acting mu- and kappa-opioid agonist with potent antinociceptive and weak rewarding effects in mice. Neuropharmacology 2008; 55(2): 154-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.05.003] [PMID: 18550129]
[40]
Adkins JE, Boyer EW, McCurdy CR. Mitragyna speciosa, a psychoactive tree from Southeast Asia with opioid activity. Curr Top Med Chem 2011; 11(9): 1165-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/156802611795371305] [PMID: 21050173]
[41]
Matsumoto K, Horie S, Takayama H, et al. Antinociception, tolerance and withdrawal symptoms induced by 7-hydroxymitragynine, an alkaloid from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa. Life Sci 2005; 78(1): 2-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2004.10.086] [PMID: 16169018]
[42]
Hemby SE, McIntosh S, Leon F, Cutler SJ, McCurdy CR. Abuse liability and therapeutic potential of the Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) alkaloids mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Addict Biol 2019; 24(5): 874-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/adb.12639] [PMID: 29949228]
[43]
Singh D, Narayanan S, Vicknasingam BK, et al. Severity of pain and sleep problems during kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) cessation among regular kratom users. J Psychoactive Drugs 2018; 50(3): 266-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2018.1443234] [PMID: 29558272]
[44]
Saingam D, Assanangkornchai S, Geater AF, Balthip Q. Pattern and consequences of krathom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) use among male villagers in southern Thailand: a qualitative study. Int J Drug Policy 2013; 24(4): 351-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2012.09.004] [PMID: 23083922]
[45]
Saingam D, Assanangkornchai S, Geater AF, Lerkiatbundit S. Validation of Krathom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Dependence Scale (KDS): a dependence screen for internationally emerging psychoactive substance. Subst Abus 2014; 35(3): 276-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2014.924464] [PMID: 24853660]
[46]
Saingam D, Assanangkornchai S, Geater AF, Lerkiatbundit S. Factor analytical investigation of krathom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth) withdrawal syndrome in Thailand. J Psychoactive Drugs 2016; 48(2): 76-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2016.1156791] [PMID: 27015537]
[47]
Boyer EW, Babu KM, Adkins JE, McCurdy CR, Halpern JH. Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth). Addiction 2008; 103(6): 1048-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02209.x] [PMID: 18482427]
[48]
McWhirter L, Morris S. A case report of inpatient detoxification after kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence. Eur Addict Res 2010; 16(4): 229-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000320288] [PMID: 20798544]
[49]
Kapp FG, Maurer HH, Auwärter V, Winkelmann M, Hermanns-Clausen M. Intrahepatic cholestasis following abuse of powdered kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). J Med Toxicol 2011; 7(3): 227-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13181-011-0155-5] [PMID: 21528385]
[50]
Sheleg SV, Collins GB. A coincidence of addiction to “Kratom” and severe primary hypothyroidism. J Addict Med 2011; 5(4): 300-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0b013e318221fbfa] [PMID: 21817918]
[51]
Singh D, Narayanan S, Müller CP, et al. Severity of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) psychological withdrawal symptoms. J Psychoactive Drugs 2018; 50(5): 445-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2018.1511879] [PMID: 30152738]
[52]
Swogger MT, Walsh Z. Kratom use and mental health: A systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend 2018; 183: 134-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.10.012] [PMID: 29248691]
[53]
Mackay L, Abrahams R. Novel case of maternal and neonatal kratom dependence and withdrawal. Can Fam Physician 2018; 64(2): 121-2.
[PMID: 29449242]
[54]
Eldridge WB, Foster C, Wyble L. Neonatal abstinence syndrome due to maternal kratom use. Pediatrics 2018; 142(6)e20181839
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-1839] [PMID: 30404789]
[55]
Singh D, Müller CP, Vicknasingam BK, Mansor SM. Social functioning of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) users in Malaysia. J Psychoactive Drugs 2015; 47(2): 125-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2015.1012610] [PMID: 25950592]
[56]
Pirnay S, Borron SW, Giudicelli CP, Tourneau J, Baud FJ, Ricordel I. A critical review of the causes of death among post-mortem toxicological investigations: analysis of 34 buprenorphine-associated and 35 methadone-associated deaths. Addiction 2004; 99(8): 978-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00790.x] [PMID: 15265095]
[57]
Veilleux JC, Colvin PJ, Anderson J, York C, Heinz AJ. A review of opioid dependence treatment: pharmacological and psychosocial interventions to treat opioid addiction. Clin Psychol Rev 2010; 30(2): 155-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.10.006] [PMID: 19926374]
[58]
Ling W, Jacobs P, Hillhouse M, et al. From research to the real world: buprenorphine in the decade of the Clinical Trials Network. J Subst Abuse Treat 2010; 38(Suppl. 1): S53-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2010.01.009] [PMID: 20307796]
[59]
Poloméni P, Schwan R. Management of opioid addiction with buprenorphine: French history and current management. Int J Gen Med 2014; 7: 143-8.
[PMID: 24623988]
[60]
Donaher PA, Welsh C. Managing opioid addiction with buprenorphine. Am Fam Physician 2006; 73(9): 1573-8.
[PMID: 16719249]
[61]
Buresh M. Treatment of kratom dependence with buprenorphine-naloxone maintenance. J Addict Med 2018; 12(6): 481-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000428] [PMID: 29944481]
[62]
Schmuhl KK, Gardner SM, Cottrill CB, Bonny AE. Home induction and outpatient treatment of kratom use disorder with buprenorphine-naloxone: A case report in a young adult. Subst Abus 2019; 1-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2019.1671945] [PMID: 31644379]
[63]
Agapoff JR, Kilaru U. Outpatient buprenorphine induction and maintenance treatment for kratom dependence: A case study. J Subst Use 2019; 24(6): 575-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2019.1638459]
[64]
Khazaeli A, Jerry JM, Vazirian M. Treatment of kratom withdrawal and addiction with buprenorphine. J Addict Med 2018; 12(6): 493-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000435] [PMID: 30383616]
[65]
Yasaei R, Saadabadi A. Clonidine. [Updated 2019 Oct 1].StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing 2020.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459124/ [Cited 2020 March 31]. Available from:
[66]
Kleber HD. Pharmacologic treatments for opioid dependence: detoxification and maintenance options. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2007; 9(4): 455-70.
[PMID: 18286804]
[67]
Galbis-Reig D. A case report of kratom addiction and withdrawal. WMJ 2016; 115(1): 49-52.
[PMID: 27057581]
[68]
Carney T, Van Hout MC, Norman I, Dada S, Siegfried N, Parry CDH. Dihydrocodeine for detoxification and maintenance treatment in individuals with opiate use disorders Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020. 2CD012254.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012254.pub2] [PMID: 32068247]
[69]
Leppert W, Woroń J. Dihydrocodeine: safety concerns. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2016; 9(1): 9-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/17512433.2016.1092871] [PMID: 26479786]
[70]
Rounsaville BJ. Can psychotherapy rescue naltrexone treatment of opioid addiction? NIDA Res Monogr 1995; 150: 37-52.
[PMID: 8742771]
[71]
Kleber HD. Naltrexone. J Subst Abuse Treat 1985; 2(2): 117-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0740-5472(85)90036-4] [PMID: 3007777]
[72]
Tetrault JM, Fiellin DA. Current and potential pharmacological treatment options for maintenance therapy in opioid-dependent individuals. Drugs 2012; 72(2): 217-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11597520-000000000-00000] [PMID: 22235870]
[73]
Minozzi S, Amato L, Vecchi S, Davoli M, Kirchmayer U, Verster A. Oral naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011. 4CD001333.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001333.pub3]
[74]
Agabio R, Preti A, Gessa GL. Efficacy and tolerability of baclofen in substance use disorders: a systematic review. Eur Addict Res 2013; 19(6): 325-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000347055] [PMID: 23775042]
[75]
Ahmadi-Abhari SA, Akhondzadeh S, Assadi SM, Shabestari OL, Farzanehgan ZM, Kamlipour A. Baclofen versus clonidine in the treatment of opiates withdrawal, side-effects aspect: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther 2001; 26(1): 67-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2710.2001.00325.x] [PMID: 11286609]
[76]
Akhondzadeh S, Ahmadi-Abhari SA, Assadi SM, Shabestari OL, Kashani AR, Farzanehgan ZM. Double-blind randomized controlled trial of baclofen vs. clonidine in the treatment of opiates withdrawal. J Clin Pharm Ther 2000; 25(5): 347-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2710.2000.00295.x] [PMID: 11123486]
[77]
Assadi SM, Radgoodarzi R, Ahmadi-Abhari SA. Baclofen for maintenance treatment of opioid dependence: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. [ISRCTN32121581]. BMC Psychiatry 2003; 3: 16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-3-16] [PMID: 14624703]
[78]
Jones JL, Mateus CF, Malcolm RJ, Brady KT, Back SE. Efficacy of ketamine in the treatment of substance use disorders: a systematic review. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9: 277.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00277] [PMID: 30140240]
[79]
Krupitsky E, Burakov A, Romanova T, Dunaevsky I, Strassman R, Grinenko A. Ketamine psychotherapy for heroin addiction: immediate effects and two-year follow-up. J Subst Abuse Treat 2002; 23(4): 273-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0740-5472(02)00275-1] [PMID: 12495789]
[80]
Krupitsky EM, Burakov AM, Dunaevsky IV, Romanova TN, Slavina TY, Grinenko AY. Single versus repeated sessions of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy for people with heroin dependence. J Psychoactive Drugs 2007; 39(1): 13-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2007.10399860] [PMID: 17523581]
[81]
Jovaiša T, Laurinenas G, Vosylius S, Šipylaite J, Badaras R, Ivaškevicius J. Effects of ketamine on precipitated opiate withdrawal. Medicina (Kaunas) 2006; 42(8): 625-34.
[PMID: 16963828]
[82]
Pertwee RG. The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin. Br J Pharmacol 2008; 153(2): 199-215.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0707442] [PMID: 17828291]
[83]
Hurd YL, Yoon M, Manini AF, et al. Early phase in the development of cannabidiol as a treatment for addiction: opioid relapse takes initial center stage. Neurotherapeutics 2015; 12(4): 807-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13311-015-0373-7] [PMID: 26269227]
[84]
Ren Y, Whittard J, Higuera-Matas A, Morris CV, Hurd YL. Cannabidiol, a nonpsychotropic component of cannabis, inhibits cue-induced heroin seeking and normalizes discrete mesolimbic neuronal disturbances. J Neurosci 2009; 29(47): 14764-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4291-09.2009] [PMID: 19940171]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
28
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy