Abstract
Background: Cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus are among the leading causes of mortality.
Objectives: Our study evaluated endothelial function in patients with arterial hypertension, coronary heart disease, and diabetes mellitus.
Aims: This study aimed to assess the degree of endothelial dysfunction in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors older than 55 years of age.
Materials and Methods: A total of 112 patients were subdivided into three groups according to the existing disease; the first group consisted of 50 patients diagnosed with arterial hypertension (AH), the second group consisted of 30 patients with ischemic heart disease (IHD), and the third group included 20 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). The control group included 12 practically healthy volunteers, comparable in age and sex. Exclusion criteria were age under 55 years, severe concomitant diseases in the acute phase or acute infectious diseases, and oncopathology. Considered factors of cardiovascular risk include dyslipidemia, elevated fasting blood glucose, hypertension, obesity, cigarette smoking, and heredity for CVD. Moreover, tests were conducted with the help of the device 'AngioScan-01' (LLC "AngioScan Electronics"). Endothelium-dependent vasodilation (EDV), the index of stiffness of the vascular wall (SI), and the atherogenic index (log (TG/HDL - C )) were evaluated. The analysis of the data obtained was carried out using the IBM SPSS Statistic program.
Results: In the control group, the atherogenic index was in the range of 3.34 (the normal is up to 3.5). The highest atherogenic index, 4.01, was observed in the DM group (differences with the control group are statistically significant). In the AH and IHD groups, the atherogenic index was 3.57 and 3.65, respectively. In the control group, the level of glycemia was 4.45 mmol/l. The highest level of fasting glucose was reported in the DM group, i.e., 6.7 mmol/l (differences with the control group were statistically significant). In the first and second groups, the fasting glucose level was 5.07 mmol/l and 5.08 mmol/l, respectively. In the control group, the mean EDV score was 2,056 ± 0.757 mm, and the lowest EDV in the DM group was 1.365 ± 0.413, but in the AH and IHD groups, it was also significantly reduced by 1.404 ± 0.440 and 1.377 ± 0.390, respectively. The stiffness index in the control group was 6.725 ± 0.776 m/s. In the DM group, this parameter was 8.258 ± 0.656 m/s; in the AH and IHD groups, it was 7.398 ± 1.330 m/s and 7.486 ± 0.816 m/s, respectively.
Conclusion: In conclusion, the study of endothelial function using non-invasive angioscan reflects the influence of risk factors on the vascular wall. The most severe endothelial dysfunction is expressed in patients with diabetes. The results of endothelium-dependent vasodilation and the vascular wall stiffness index (SI) correspond to the scale of evaluation of the 10-year CVD mortality risk (SCORE). These results indicate a deterioration in the vascular ability to vasodilate in patients in response to mechanical deformation of the endothelium and the effect of NO on smooth muscle vascular cells.
Graphical Abstract
[1]
Abdullah Marzoog, B. Adaptive and compensatory mechanisms of the cardiovascular system and disease risk factors in young males and females; New Emirates Med. J., 2022, p. 04.
[2]
Marzoog, B.A. Endothelial cell autophagy in the context of disease development. Anat. Cell Biol., 2023, 56(1), 16-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5115/acb.22.098] [PMID: 36267005]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5115/acb.22.098] [PMID: 36267005]
[3]
Marzoog, B.A. Transcription factors - the essence of heart regeneration: A potential novel therapeutic strategy. Curr. Mol. Med., 2023, 23(3), 232-238.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1566524022666220216123650] [PMID: 35170408]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1566524022666220216123650] [PMID: 35170408]
[4]
Marzoog, B.A. Ageing increases the incidence rate of post coronary artery shunt complications. medRxiv, 2022, 2022, 22283945.2022 .12.26.22283945.
[6]
Marzoog, B.A. Autophagy in cancer cell transformation: A potential novel therapeutic strategy. Curr. Cancer Drug Targets, 2022, 22(9), 749-756.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1568009622666220428102741] [PMID: 36062863]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1568009622666220428102741] [PMID: 36062863]
[7]
Marzoog, B.A.; Abdullah Marzoog, B. Autophagy behavior in endothelial cell dysfunction; New Emirates Med. J., 2023, p. 04.
[8]
Marzoog, B.A. Pulmonary fibrosis; risk factors and molecular triggers, insight for neo therapeutic approach. Curr. Respir. Med. Rev., 2022, 18(4), 259-266.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573398X18666220806124019]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573398X18666220806124019]
[10]
Marzoog, B. Lipid behavior in metabolic syndrome pathophysiology. Curr. Diabetes Rev., 2022, 18(6), e150921196497.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573399817666210915101321] [PMID: 34525924]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573399817666210915101321] [PMID: 34525924]
[11]
Marzoog, B.A. The metabolic syndrome puzzles; possible pathogenesis and management. Curr. Diabetes Rev., 2023, 19(4), e290422204258.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573399818666220429100411] [PMID: 35507784]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573399818666220429100411] [PMID: 35507784]
[12]
Abdullah Marzoog, B. Caveolae’s behavior in norm and pathology. New Emirates Med. J., , 2023, 4(2)
[13]
Marzoog, B.A. Tree of life: Endothelial cell in norm and disease, the good guy is a partner in crime! Anat. Cell Biol., 2023, 56(2), 166-178.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5115/acb.22.190] [PMID: 36879408]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5115/acb.22.190] [PMID: 36879408]
[14]
Marzoog, B.A.; Vlasova, T.I. Membrane lipids under norm and pathology. Eur. J. Clin. Experimen. Med., 2021, 19(1), 59-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2021.1.9]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2021.1.9]
[15]
Marzoog, B.A. Autophagy behavior in post-myocardial infarction injury. Cardiovasc. Hematol. Disord. Targets, 2023. 23
[16]
Storch, A.S.; Mattos, J.D.; Alves, R.; Galdino, I.S.; Rocha, H.N.M. Methods of endothelial function assessment: Description and applications. Int. J. Cardiovasc. Sci., 2017, 20170034.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5935/2359-4802.20170034]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5935/2359-4802.20170034]
[17]
Wenceslau, C.F.; McCarthy, C.G.; Earley, S.; England, S.K.; Filosa, J.A.; Goulopoulou, S.; Gutterman, D.D.; Isakson, B.E.; Kanagy, N.L.; Martinez-Lemus, L.A.; Sonkusare, S.K.; Thakore, P.; Trask, A.J.; Watts, S.W.; Webb, R.C. Guidelines for the measurement of vascular function and structure in isolated arteries and veins. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol., 2021, 321(1), H77-H111.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.01021.2020] [PMID: 33989082]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.01021.2020] [PMID: 33989082]
[18]
Smith, J.F.; Lemmey, H.A.L.; Borysova, L.; Hiley, C.R.; Dora, K.A.; Garland, C.J. Endothelial nitric oxide suppresses action potential-like transient spikes and vasospasm in small resistance arteries. Hypertension, 2020, 76(3), 785-794.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15491] [PMID: 32713276]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15491] [PMID: 32713276]
[20]
Wissler Gerdes, E.O.; Zhu, Y.; Weigand, B.M.; Tripathi, U.; Burns, T.C.; Tchkonia, T.; Kirkland, J.L. Cellular senescence in aging and age-related diseases: Implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Int. Rev. Neurobiol., 2020, 155, 203-234.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.irn.2020.03.019] [PMID: 32854855]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.irn.2020.03.019] [PMID: 32854855]
[21]
Rimmelé, P.; Bigarella, C.L.; Liang, R.; Izac, B.; Dieguez-Gonzalez, R.; Barbet, G.; Donovan, M.; Brugnara, C.; Blander, J.M.; Sinclair, D.A.; Ghaffari, S. Aging-like phenotype and defective lineage specification in SIRT1-deleted hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Stem Cell Reports, 2014, 3(1), 44-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.stemcr.2014.04.015] [PMID: 25068121]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.stemcr.2014.04.015] [PMID: 25068121]
[22]
Vujin, A.; Dick, K. The information theory of aging: Hacking immortality? Health Sci. Inq., 2020, 11(1), 154.
[23]
Tauc, H.M. Age-related changes in polycomb gene regulation disrupt lineage fidelity in intestinal stem cells. Elife, 2021, 10, e62250.
[24]
Marzoog, B.A.; Vlasova, T.I. Myocardiocyte autophagy in the context of myocardiocytes regeneration: A potential novel therapeutic strategy. Egypt. J. Med. Hum. Genet., 2022, 23(1), 41.
[25]
Avgustinova, A.; Benitah, S.A. Epigenetic control of adult stem cell function. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol., 2016, 17(10), 643-658.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm.2016.76] [PMID: 27405257]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm.2016.76] [PMID: 27405257]
[26]
Ermolaeva, M.; Neri, F.; Ori, A.; Rudolph, K.L. Cellular and epigenetic drivers of stem cell ageing. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol., 2018, 19(9), 594-610.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41580-018-0020-3] [PMID: 29858605]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41580-018-0020-3] [PMID: 29858605]
[27]
AngioScan-01 Diagnostic Device of Cardio-Vascular System State I; AngioScan-Electronics LLC, 2014.
[28]
Lacolley, P.; Regnault, V.; Laurent, S. Mechanisms of arterial stiffening: From mechanotransduction to epigenetics. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2020, 40(5), 1055-1062.
[29]
Vanhoutte, P.M.; Feletou, M.; Taddei, S. Endothelium-dependent contractions in hypertension. Br. J. Pharmacol., 2005, 144(4), 449-458.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706042] [PMID: 15655530]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706042] [PMID: 15655530]
[30]
Rajendran, P.; Rengarajan, T.; Thangavel, J.; Nishigaki, Y.; Sakthisekaran, D.; Sethi, G.; Nishigaki, I. The vascular endothelium and human diseases. Int. J. Biol. Sci., 2013, 9(10), 1057-1069.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.7502] [PMID: 24250251]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.7502] [PMID: 24250251]
[31]
Meyers, M.R.; Gokce, N. Endothelial dysfunction in obesity: Etiological role in atherosclerosis. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes., 2007, 14(5), 365-369.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e3282be90a8] [PMID: 17940464]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e3282be90a8] [PMID: 17940464]
[32]
Svarovskaya, A.V.; Teplyakov, A.T.; Gusakova, A.M.; Garganeeva, A.A. Role of markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in the prognosis of the development of cardiovascular complications in patients with coronary artery disease and metabolic syndrome after coronary stenting. Kardiologiia, 2020, 60(8), 98-105.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18087/cardio.2020.8.n966] [PMID: 33155965]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18087/cardio.2020.8.n966] [PMID: 33155965]
[33]
Tang, E.H.C.; Vanhoutte, P.M. Endothelial dysfunction: A strategic target in the treatment of hypertension? Pflugers Arch., 2010, 459(6), 995-1004.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00424-010-0786-4] [PMID: 20127126]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00424-010-0786-4] [PMID: 20127126]
[34]
Atochin, D.N.; Huang, P.L. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase transgenic models of endothelial dysfunction. Pflugers Arch., 2010, 460(6), 965-974.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00424-010-0867-4] [PMID: 20697735]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00424-010-0867-4] [PMID: 20697735]
[35]
Sun, H.J.; Wu, Z.Y.; Nie, X.W.; Bian, J.S. Role of endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: The link between inflammation and hydrogen sulfide. Front. Pharmacol., 2020, 10, 1568.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01568] [PMID: 32038245]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01568] [PMID: 32038245]
[36]
Chia, P.Y.; Teo, A.; Yeo, T.W. Overview of the assessment of endothelial function in humans. Front. Med., 2020, 7, 542567.
[37]
Wen, F. Clinical evaluation tool for vascular health& ndash;endothelial function and cardiovascular disease management. Cells, 2022, 11, 3363.
[38]
Lee, H.W.; Shin, J.H.; Simons, M. Flow goes forward and cells step backward: Endothelial migration. Exp. Mol. Med., 2022, 54(6), 711-719.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s12276-022-00785-1] [PMID: 35701563]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s12276-022-00785-1] [PMID: 35701563]
[39]
Roth, G.A.; Mensah, G.A.; Johnson, C.O.; Addolorato, G.; Ammirati, E.; Baddour, L.M.; Barengo, N.C.; Beaton, A.Z.; Benjamin, E.J.; Benziger, C.P.; Bonny, A.; Brauer, M.; Brodmann, M.; Cahill, T.J.; Carapetis, J.; Catapano, A.L.; Chugh, S.S.; Cooper, L.T.; Coresh, J.; Criqui, M.; DeCleene, N.; Eagle, K.A.; Emmons-Bell, S.; Feigin, V.L.; Fernández-Solà, J.; Fowkes, G.; Gakidou, E.; Grundy, S.M.; He, F.J.; Howard, G.; Hu, F.; Inker, L.; Karthikeyan, G.; Kassebaum, N.; Koroshetz, W.; Lavie, C.; Lloyd-Jones, D.; Lu, H.S.; Mirijello, A.; Temesgen, A.M.; Mokdad, A.; Moran, A.E.; Muntner, P.; Narula, J.; Neal, B.; Ntsekhe, M.; Moraes de Oliveira, G.; Otto, C.; Owolabi, M.; Pratt, M.; Rajagopalan, S.; Reitsma, M.; Ribeiro, A.L.P.; Rigotti, N.; Rodgers, A.; Sable, C.; Shakil, S.; Sliwa-Hahnle, K.; Stark, B.; Sundström, J.; Timpel, P.; Tleyjeh, I.M.; Valgimigli, M.; Vos, T.; Whelton, P.K.; Yacoub, M.; Zuhlke, L.; Murray, C.; Fuster, V.; Roth, G.A.; Mensah, G.A.; Johnson, C.O.; Addolorato, G.; Ammirati, E.; Baddour, L.M.; Barengo, N.C.; Beaton, A.; Benjamin, E.J.; Benziger, C.P.; Bonny, A.; Brauer, M.; Brodmann, M.; Cahill, T.J.; Carapetis, J.R.; Catapano, A.L.; Chugh, S.; Cooper, L.T.; Coresh, J.; Criqui, M.H.; DeCleene, N.K.; Eagle, K.A.; Emmons-Bell, S.; Feigin, V.L.; Fernández-Sola, J.; Fowkes, F.G.R.; Gakidou, E.; Grundy, S.M.; He, F.J.; Howard, G.; Hu, F.; Inker, L.; Karthikeyan, G.; Kassebaum, N.J.; Koroshetz, W.J.; Lavie, C.; Lloyd-Jones, D.; Lu, H.S.; Mirijello, A.; Misganaw, A.T.; Mokdad, A.H.; Moran, A.E.; Muntner, P.; Narula, J.; Neal, B.; Ntsekhe, M.; Oliveira, G.M.M.; Otto, C.M.; Owolabi, M.O.; Pratt, M.; Rajagopalan, S.; Reitsma, M.B.; Ribeiro, A.L.P.; Rigotti, N.A.; Rodgers, A.; Sable, C.A.; Shakil, S.S.; Sliwa, K.; Stark, B.A.; Sundström, J.; Timpel, P.; Tleyjeh, I.I.; Valgimigli, M.; Vos, T.; Whelton, P.K.; Yacoub, M.; Zuhlke, L.J.; Abbasi-Kangevari, M.; Abdi, A.; Abedi, A.; Aboyans, V.; Abrha, W.A.; Abu-Gharbieh, E.; Abushouk, A.I.; Acharya, D.; Adair, T.; Adebayo, O.M.; Ademi, Z.; Advani, S.M.; Afshari, K.; Afshin, A.; Agarwal, G.; Agasthi, P.; Ahmad, S.; Ahmadi, S.; Ahmed, M.B.; Aji, B.; Akalu, Y.; Akande-Sholabi, W.; Aklilu, A.; Akunna, C.J.; Alahdab, F.; Al-Eyadhy, A.; Alhabib, K.F.; Alif, S.M.; Alipour, V.; Aljunid, S.M.; Alla, F.; Almasi-Hashiani, A.; Almustanyir, S.; Al-Raddadi, R.M.; Amegah, A.K.; Amini, S.; Aminorroaya, A.; Amu, H.; Amugsi, D.A.; Ancuceanu, R.; Anderlini, D.; Andrei, T.; Andrei, C.L.; Ansari-Moghaddam, A.; Anteneh, Z.A.; Antonazzo, I.C.; Antony, B.; Anwer, R.; Appiah, L.T.; Arabloo, J.; Ärnlöv, J.; Artanti, K.D.; Ataro, Z.; Ausloos, M.; Avila-Burgos, L.; Awan, A.T.; Awoke, M.A.; Ayele, H.T.; Ayza, M.A.; Azari, S.; B, D.B.; Baheiraei, N.; Baig, A.A.; Bakhtiari, A.; Banach, M.; Banik, P.C.; Baptista, E.A.; Barboza, M.A.; Barua, L.; Basu, S.; Bedi, N.; Béjot, Y.; Bennett, D.A.; Bensenor, I.M.; Berman, A.E.; Bezabih, Y.M.; Bhagavathula, A.S.; Bhaskar, S.; Bhattacharyya, K.; Bijani, A.; Bikbov, B.; Birhanu, M.M.; Boloor, A.; Brant, L.C.; Brenner, H.; Briko, N.I.; Butt, Z.A.; Caetano dos Santos, F.L.; Cahill, L.E.; Cahuana-Hurtado, L.; Cámera, L.A.; Campos-Nonato, I.R.; Cantu-Brito, C.; Car, J.; Carrero, J.J.; Carvalho, F.; Castañeda-Orjuela, C.A.; Catalá-López, F.; Cerin, E.; Charan, J.; Chattu, V.K.; Chen, S.; Chin, K.L.; Choi, J-Y.J.; Chu, D-T.; Chung, S-C.; Cirillo, M.; Coffey, S.; Conti, S.; Costa, V.M.; Cundiff, D.K.; Dadras, O.; Dagnew, B.; Dai, X.; Damasceno, A.A.M.; Dandona, L.; Dandona, R.; Davletov, K.; De la Cruz-Góngora, V.; De la Hoz, F.P.; De Neve, J-W.; Denova-Gutiérrez, E.; Derbew Molla, M.; Derseh, B.T.; Desai, R.; Deuschl, G.; Dharmaratne, S.D.; Dhimal, M.; Dhungana, R.R.; Dianatinasab, M.; Diaz, D.; Djalalinia, S.; Dokova, K.; Douiri, A.; Duncan, B.B.; Duraes, A.R.; Eagan, A.W.; Ebtehaj, S.; Eftekhari, A.; Eftekharzadeh, S.; Ekholuenetale, M.; El Nahas, N.; Elgendy, I.Y.; Elhadi, M.; El-Jaafary, S.I.; Esteghamati, S.; Etisso, A.E.; Eyawo, O.; Fadhil, I.; Faraon, E.J.A.; Faris, P.S.; Farwati, M.; Farzadfar, F.; Fernandes, E.; Fernandez Prendes, C.; Ferrara, P.; Filip, I.; Fischer, F.; Flood, D.; Fukumoto, T.; Gad, M.M.; Gaidhane, S.; Ganji, M.; Garg, J.; Gebre, A.K.; Gebregiorgis, B.G.; Gebregzabiher, K.Z.; Gebremeskel, G.G.; Getacher, L.; Obsa, A.G.; Ghajar, A.; Ghashghaee, A.; Ghith, N.; Giampaoli, S.; Gilani, S.A.; Gill, P.S.; Gillum, R.F.; Glushkova, E.V.; Gnedovskaya, E.V.; Golechha, M.; Gonfa, K.B.; Goudarzian, A.H.; Goulart, A.C.; Guadamuz, J.S.; Guha, A.; Guo, Y.; Gupta, R.; Hachinski, V.; Hafezi-Nejad, N.; Haile, T.G.; Hamadeh, R.R.; Hamidi, S.; Hankey, G.J.; Hargono, A.; Hartono, R.K.; Hashemian, M.; Hashi, A.; Hassan, S.; Hassen, H.Y.; Havmoeller, R.J.; Hay, S.I.; Hayat, K.; Heidari, G.; Herteliu, C.; Holla, R.; Hosseini, M.; Hosseinzadeh, M.; Hostiuc, M.; Hostiuc, S.; Househ, M.; Huang, J.; Humayun, A.; Iavicoli, I.; Ibeneme, C.U.; Ibitoye, S.E.; Ilesanmi, O.S.; Ilic, I.M.; Ilic, M.D.; Iqbal, U.; Irvani, S.S.N.; Islam, S.M.S.; Islam, R.M.; Iso, H.; Iwagami, M.; Jain, V.; Javaheri, T.; Jayapal, S.K.; Jayaram, S.; Jayawardena, R.; Jeemon, P.; Jha, R.P.; Jonas, J.B.; Jonnagaddala, J.; Joukar, F.; Jozwiak, J.J.; Jürisson, M.; Kabir, A.; Kahlon, T.; Kalani, R.; Kalhor, R.; Kamath, A.; Kamel, I.; Kandel, H.; Kandel, A.; Karch, A.; Kasa, A.S.; Katoto, P.D.M.C.; Kayode, G.A.; Khader, Y.S.; Khammarnia, M.; Khan, M.S.; Khan, M.N.; Khan, M.; Khan, E.A.; Khatab, K.; Kibria, G.M.A.; Kim, Y.J.; Kim, G.R.; Kimokoti, R.W.; Kisa, S.; Kisa, A.; Kivimäki, M.; Kolte, D.; Koolivand, A.; Korshunov, V.A.; Koulmane Laxminarayana, S.L.; Koyanagi, A.; Krishan, K.; Krishnamoorthy, V.; Kuate Defo, B.; Kucuk Bicer, B.; Kulkarni, V.; Kumar, G.A.; Kumar, N.; Kurmi, O.P.; Kusuma, D.; Kwan, G.F.; La Vecchia, C.; Lacey, B.; Lallukka, T.; Lan, Q.; Lasrado, S.; Lassi, Z.S.; Lauriola, P.; Lawrence, W.R.; Laxmaiah, A.; LeGrand, K.E.; Li, M-C.; Li, B.; Li, S.; Lim, S.S.; Lim, L-L.; Lin, H.; Lin, Z.; Lin, R-T.; Liu, X.; Lopez, A.D.; Lorkowski, S.; Lotufo, P.A.; Lugo, A.; M, N.K.; Madotto, F.; Mahmoudi, M.; Majeed, A.; Malekzadeh, R.; Malik, A.A.; Mamun, A.A.; Manafi, N.; Mansournia, M.A.; Mantovani, L.G.; Martini, S.; Mathur, M.R.; Mazzaglia, G.; Mehata, S.; Mehndiratta, M.M.; Meier, T.; Menezes, R.G.; Meretoja, A.; Mestrovic, T.; Miazgowski, B.; Miazgowski, T.; Michalek, I.M.; Miller, T.R.; Mirrakhimov, E.M.; Mirzaei, H.; Moazen, B.; Moghadaszadeh, M.; Mohammad, Y.; Mohammad, D.K.; Mohammed, S.; Mohammed, M.A.; Mokhayeri, Y.; Molokhia, M.; Montasir, A.A.; Moradi, G.; Moradzadeh, R.; Moraga, P.; Morawska, L.; Moreno Velásquez, I.; Morze, J.; Mubarik, S.; Muruet, W.; Musa, K.I.; Nagarajan, A.J.; Nalini, M.; Nangia, V.; Naqvi, A.A.; Narasimha Swamy, S.; Nascimento, B.R.; Nayak, V.C.; Nazari, J.; Nazarzadeh, M.; Negoi, R.I.; Neupane Kandel, S.; Nguyen, H.L.T.; Nixon, M.R.; Norrving, B.; Noubiap, J.J.; Nouthe, B.E.; Nowak, C.; Odukoya, O.O.; Ogbo, F.A.; Olagunju, A.T.; Orru, H.; Ortiz, A.; Ostroff, S.M.; Padubidri, J.R.; Palladino, R.; Pana, A.; Panda-Jonas, S.; Parekh, U.; Park, E-C.; Parvizi, M.; Pashazadeh Kan, F.; Patel, U.K.; Pathak, M.; Paudel, R.; Pepito, V.C.F.; Perianayagam, A.; Perico, N.; Pham, H.Q.; Pilgrim, T.; Piradov, M.A.; Pishgar, F.; Podder, V.; Polibin, R.V.; Pourshams, A.; Pribadi, D.R.A.; Rabiee, N.; Rabiee, M.; Radfar, A.; Rafiei, A.; Rahim, F.; Rahimi-Movaghar, V.; Ur Rahman, M.H.; Rahman, M.A.; Rahmani, A.M.; Rakovac, I.; Ram, P.; Ramalingam, S.; Rana, J.; Ranasinghe, P.; Rao, S.J.; Rathi, P.; Rawal, L.; Rawasia, W.F.; Rawassizadeh, R.; Remuzzi, G.; Renzaho, A.M.N.; Rezapour, A.; Riahi, S.M.; Roberts-Thomson, R.L.; Roever, L.; Rohloff, P.; Romoli, M.; Roshandel, G.; Rwegerera, G.M.; Saadatagah, S.; Saber-Ayad, M.M.; Sabour, S.; Sacco, S.; Sadeghi, M.; Saeedi Moghaddam, S.; Safari, S.; Sahebkar, A.; Salehi, S.; Salimzadeh, H.; Samaei, M.; Samy, A.M.; Santos, I.S.; Santric-Milicevic, M.M.; Sarrafzadegan, N.; Sarveazad, A.; Sathish, T.; Sawhney, M.; Saylan, M.; Schmidt, M.I.; Schutte, A.E.; Senthilkumaran, S.; Sepanlou, S.G.; Sha, F.; Shahabi, S.; Shahid, I.; Shaikh, M.A.; Shamali, M.; Shamsizadeh, M.; Shawon, M.S.R.; Sheikh, A.; Shigematsu, M.; Shin, M-J.; Shin, J.I.; Shiri, R.; Shiue, I.; Shuval, K.; Siabani, S.; Siddiqi, T.J.; Silva, D.A.S.; Singh, J.A.; Mtech, A.S.; Skryabin, V.Y.; Skryabina, A.A.; Soheili, A.; Spurlock, E.E.; Stockfelt, L.; Stortecky, S.; Stranges, S.; Suliankatchi Abdulkader, R.; Tadbiri, H.; Tadesse, E.G.; Tadesse, D.B.; Tajdini, M.; Tariqujjaman, M.; Teklehaimanot, B.F.; Temsah, M-H.; Tesema, A.K.; Thakur, B.; Thankappan, K.R.; Thapar, R.; Thrift, A.G.; Timalsina, B.; Tonelli, M.; Touvier, M.; Tovani-Palone, M.R.; Tripathi, A.; Tripathy, J.P.; Truelsen, T.C.; Tsegay, G.M.; Tsegaye, G.W.; Tsilimparis, N.; Tusa, B.S.; Tyrovolas, S.; Umapathi, K.K.; Unim, B.; Unnikrishnan, B.; Usman, M.S.; Vaduganathan, M.; Valdez, P.R.; Vasankari, T.J.; Velazquez, D.Z.; Venketasubramanian, N.; Vu, G.T.; Vujcic, I.S.; Waheed, Y.; Wang, Y.; Wang, F.; Wei, J.; Weintraub, R.G.; Weldemariam, A.H.; Westerman, R.; Winkler, A.S.; Wiysonge, C.S.; Wolfe, C.D.A.; Wubishet, B.L.; Xu, G.; Yadollahpour, A.; Yamagishi, K.; Yan, L.L.; Yandrapalli, S.; Yano, Y.; Yatsuya, H.; Yeheyis, T.Y.; Yeshaw, Y.; Yilgwan, C.S.; Yonemoto, N.; Yu, C.; Yusefzadeh, H.; Zachariah, G.; Zaman, S.B.; Zaman, M.S.; Zamanian, M.; Zand, R.; Zandifar, A.; Zarghi, A.; Zastrozhin, M.S.; Zastrozhina, A.; Zhang, Z-J.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, W.; Zhong, C.; Zou, Z.; Zuniga, Y.M.H.; Murray, C.J.L.; Fuster, V. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk factors, 1990-2019. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2020, 76(25), 2982-3021.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.11.010] [PMID: 33309175]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.11.010] [PMID: 33309175]
[40]
Liu, H.; Liu, J.; Zhao, H.; Wang, H. Association of brain white matter lesions with arterial stiffness assessed by cardio-ankle vascular index. The Beijing Vascular Disease Evaluation STudy (BEST). Brain Imaging Behav., 2021, 15(2), 1025-1032.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11682-020-00309-3] [PMID: 33068268]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11682-020-00309-3] [PMID: 33068268]
[41]
Botts, S.R.; Fish, J.E.; Howe, K.L. Dysfunctional vascular endothelium as a driver of atherosclerosis: Emerging insights into pathogenesis and treatment. Front. Pharmacol., 2021, 12, 787541.
[42]
Badorff, C.; Brandes, R.P.; Popp, R.; Rupp, S.; Urbich, C.; Aicher, A.; Fleming, I.; Busse, R.; Zeiher, A.M.; Dimmeler, S. Transdifferentiation of blood-derived human adult endothelial progenitor cells into functionally active cardiomyocytes. Circulation, 2003, 107(7), 1024-1032.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000051460.85800.BB] [PMID: 12600917]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000051460.85800.BB] [PMID: 12600917]
