Abstract
It is well known that skin lesions are among the most common complications of chronic kidney disease (CKD), which significantly impact the patient's quality of life. Research has demonstrated that gut and skin lesions are closely interconnected and affect each other. This interaction is referred to as the "gut-skin axis" and the intestinal microbiota plays a critical role in this interaction. Changes in gut microbiota composition and function are associated with the development of skin diseases, which are part of the "gut-skin axis". Presently, preliminary results have been demonstrated in basic and clinical research on CKD skin lesions. With further research, the "gut-skin axis" theory can provide new ideas for treating CKD skin lesions and may become a potential treatment target.
Graphical Abstract
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-4362.1992.tb03543.x] [PMID: 1478764]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40261-019-00849-7] [PMID: 31549347]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm8040444] [PMID: 30987008]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.00146] [PMID: 32411613]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/BM2013.0001] [PMID: 24322879]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MCG.0b013e318230928b] [PMID: 21992958]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040252] [PMID: 33807343]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11255-019-02291-2] [PMID: 31576489]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bies.201600008] [PMID: 27554239]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01459] [PMID: 30042740]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9060463] [PMID: 32545459]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2009.01060.x] [PMID: 20113345]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020353] [PMID: 33670115]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12489-0] [PMID: 12583961]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2014.03.019] [PMID: 24681103]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408363.2018.1517144] [PMID: 30373492]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.38892] [PMID: 25319745]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjw070] [PMID: 26971052]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.08.021] [PMID: 26431583]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-immunol-042718-041841] [PMID: 31026411]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.17191] [PMID: 34548985]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.22074/cellj.2016.3980] [PMID: 27054112]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0053867] [PMID: 23342023]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078898] [PMID: 24205344]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1684/ejd.2010.1108] [PMID: 20965806]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/etm.2016.3862] [PMID: 28105118]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7090279] [PMID: 31438634]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ACI.0b013e3282ef869e] [PMID: 17873575]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0802999] [PMID: 19380832]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12659/MSM.881720] [PMID: 21455110]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.07-1390] [PMID: 18579762]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2004.08.018] [PMID: 15485625]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10228] [PMID: 21765430]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/exd.14016] [PMID: 31386766]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41577-019-0172-1] [PMID: 31048790]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2014.5585] [PMID: 25760018]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/BM2012.0066] [PMID: 23685373]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-11-86] [PMID: 21527013]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ckj/sfab200] [PMID: 34987780]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2006.01570.x] [PMID: 16836494]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.03280317] [PMID: 28923831]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfl461] [PMID: 16968725]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13080527] [PMID: 34437400]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-57004-7] [PMID: 31892730]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12016-015-8488-5] [PMID: 25931325]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20082242] [PMID: 19414552]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5049/EBP.2014.12.2.74] [PMID: 25606046]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep31168] [PMID: 27507591]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-15-06176.2003] [PMID: 12867500]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/etm.2019.7588] [PMID: 31384331]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000458417] [PMID: 28183080]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1072-7515(99)00212-4] [PMID: 10625234]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2016.03.001] [PMID: 27981187]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000268126] [PMID: 20203502]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ddmec.2008.04.004] [PMID: 19492070]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfw025] [PMID: 27005994]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ckj/sfv120] [PMID: 26798470]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.3334] [PMID: 30473967]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MNH.0b013e32830f4566] [PMID: 18941358]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nep.13081] [PMID: 28603903]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11606-014-2910-1]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.20960/nh.1642] [PMID: 29974784]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.01.034] [PMID: 25960299]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77806-4] [PMID: 33303854]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nefroe.2018.09.001] [PMID: 30415999]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2008.00433.x] [PMID: 18346256]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0560.2003.00109.x] [PMID: 14507400]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.642296] [PMID: 33842503]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000486936] [PMID: 29734151]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000455166] [PMID: 28118622]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2019.10.005] [PMID: 31708445]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/1319-2442.106236] [PMID: 23354189]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/hdi.12689] [PMID: 30520561]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.05900513] [PMID: 24115194]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfh480] [PMID: 15328388]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22125-y] [PMID: 29491401]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2017.05.018] [PMID: 28720208]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1871530320666200929140522] [PMID: 32990546]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu8090523] [PMID: 27571098]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2014.66] [PMID: 24912386]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23105409] [PMID: 35628229]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910307107] [PMID: 20018654]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.29737] [PMID: 32346892]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/exd.13130] [PMID: 27315170]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2015.09.001] [PMID: 26707956]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.00298.2018] [PMID: 30864840]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm.3444] [PMID: 24390308]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2018.04.022] [PMID: 29768180]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2019.06.002] [PMID: 31272808]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2016.03.016] [PMID: 27212436]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2016.11.014] [PMID: 27887954]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08530] [PMID: 19865172]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0029665120006916] [PMID: 32238208]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01085] [PMID: 26500629]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mi.2017.118] [PMID: 29411774]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/intimm/dxab049] [PMID: 34346497]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7734] [PMID: 25828455]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2019.01.019] [PMID: 30639376]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41149-6] [PMID: 30899033]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.00490114] [PMID: 25147155]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0886022X.2018.1561376] [PMID: 30732506]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2014010042] [PMID: 25349205]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10092234] [PMID: 36140334]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10010019] [PMID: 29283413]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040229] [PMID: 32260489]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12110684] [PMID: 33138205]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40265-019-01118-9] [PMID: 31062264]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2004.12.052] [PMID: 15965439]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197707212970304] [PMID: 865585]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12051108] [PMID: 35626264]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.05490610] [PMID: 21258039]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09546630802441218] [PMID: 18821119]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfi204] [PMID: 16249205]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.09600818] [PMID: 30975656]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2340/00015555-2266] [PMID: 26524435]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2215/CJN.05240515] [PMID: 26772193]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.09.196] [PMID: 25449490]