Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1871-5273
ISSN (Online): 1996-3181

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Mini-Review Article

Choice and Timing of Antithrombotic after Ischemic Stroke, Intracerebral Hemorrhage or Cerebral Venous Thrombosis

Author(s): Dylan Ryan*, Tarun Girotra and Wuwei Feng

Volume 23, Issue 2, 2024

Published on: 14 April, 2023

Page: [135 - 152] Pages: 18

DOI: 10.2174/1871527322666230309100626

Price: $65

Abstract

Stroke is a multifactorial vascular disease and remains a leading cause of disability in the United States. Strokes can be ischemic or hemorrhagic in nature and secondary to arterial or venous disease, making determining the etiology and secondary prevention strategy important for preservation of the injured brain, prevention of recurrent strokes, and in the maintenance of good functional outcomes for patients impacted by stroke. In this narrative review, we provide a synopsis of the available medical evidence surround selection, timing, and choice of therapy, including utilization of left atrial appendage closure, in patients with ischemic, hemorrhagic or venous stroke.

Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2018; 49(3): e46-e110.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STR.0000000000000158] [PMID: 29367334]
[2]
Kirchhof P, Benussi S, Kotecha D, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS. Kardiol Pol 2016; 74(12): 1359-469.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5603/KP.2016.0172] [PMID: 28009037]
[3]
Steffel J, Verhamme P, Potpara TS, et al. The 2018 European Heart Rhythm Association Practical Guide on the use of non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants in patients with atrial fibrillation: Executive summary. Kardiol Pol 2018; 76(9): 1283-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5603/KP.2018.0180] [PMID: 30211938]
[4]
Wein T, Lindsay MP, Cote R, et al. Canadian stroke best practice recommendations: Secondary prevention of stroke, sixth edition practice guidelines, update 2017. Int J Stroke 2018; 13(4): 420-3.
[5]
Rudd AG, Bowen A, Young GR, James MA. The latest national clinical guideline for stroke. Clin Med 2017; 17(2): 154-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7861/clinmedicine.17-2-154] [PMID: 28365628]
[6]
Hersi AS, Alhebaishi YS, Hamoui O, et al. Practical perspectives on the use of non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants for stroke prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: A view from the Middle East and North Africa. J Saudi Heart Assoc 2018; 30(2): 122-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsha.2017.05.001] [PMID: 29910583]
[7]
Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154(13): 1449-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1994.00420130036007] [PMID: 8018000]
[8]
Besson G, Bogousslavsky J. European atrial fibrillation trial (EAFT). Secondary prevention with anticoagulants and aspirin in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation having suffered a transient ischemic attack or a regressive vascular accident Rev Med Suisse Romande 1991; 111(1): 49-55.
[PMID: 2006364]
[9]
Paciaroni M, Agnelli G, Falocci N, et al. Early recurrence and cerebral bleeding in patients with acute ischemic stroke and atrial fibrillation. Stroke 2015; 46(8): 2175-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.115.008891] [PMID: 26130094]
[10]
Abdul-Rahim AH, Fulton RL, Frank B, et al. Association of improved outcome in acute ischaemic stroke patients with atrial fibrillation who receive early antithrombotic therapy: Analysis from VISTA. Eur J Neurol 2015; 22(7): 1048-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ene.12577] [PMID: 25319957]
[11]
Altavilla R, Caso V, Bandini F, et al. Anticoagulation after stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation. Stroke 2019; 50(8): 2093-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.118.022856] [PMID: 31221054]
[12]
Paciaroni M, Agnelli G, Falocci N, et al. Early recurrence and major bleeding in patients with acute ischemic stroke and atrial fibrillation treated with Non-Vitamin‐K oral anticoagulants (RAF‐NOACs) study. J Am Heart Assoc 2017; 6(12): e007034.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.007034] [PMID: 29220330]
[13]
Paciaroni M, Agnelli G, Micheli S, Caso V. Efficacy and safety of anticoagulant treatment in acute cardioembolic stroke: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Stroke 2007; 38(2): 423-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000254600.92975.1f] [PMID: 17204681]
[14]
Dubois EA, Cohen AF. Dabigatran etexilate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2010; 70(1): 14-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.2010.03644.x] [PMID: 20642542]
[15]
Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2009; 361(12): 1139-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0905561] [PMID: 19717844]
[16]
Diener HC, Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, et al. Dabigatran compared with warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation and previous transient ischaemic attack or stroke: A subgroup analysis of the RE-LY trial. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9(12): 1157-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70274-X] [PMID: 21059484]
[17]
Samama MM. The mechanism of action of rivaroxaban - an oral, direct Factor Xa inhibitor - compared with other anticoagulants. Thromb Res 2011; 127(6): 497-504.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2010.09.008] [PMID: 20888031]
[18]
Patel MR, Mahaffey KW, Garg J, et al. Rivaroxaban versus warfarin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(10): 883-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1009638] [PMID: 21830957]
[19]
Hankey GJ, Patel MR, Stevens SR, et al. Rivaroxaban compared with warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation and previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack: A subgroup analysis of ROCKET AF. Lancet Neurol 2012; 11(4): 315-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70042-X] [PMID: 22402056]
[20]
Gosselin R, Grant RP, Adcock DM. Comparison of the effect of the anti-Xa direct oral anticoagulants apixaban, edoxaban, and rivaroxaban on coagulation assays. Int J Lab Hematol 2016; 38(5): 505-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12528] [PMID: 27265752]
[21]
Connolly SJ, Eikelboom J, Joyner C, et al. Apixaban in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011; 364(9): 806-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1007432] [PMID: 21309657]
[22]
Granger CB, Alexander JH, McMurray JJV, et al. Apixaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(11): 981-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1107039] [PMID: 21870978]
[23]
Giugliano RP, Ruff CT, Braunwald E, et al. Edoxaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(22): 2093-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1310907] [PMID: 24251359]
[24]
Seiffge DJ, Traenka C, Polymeris A, et al. Early start of DOAC after ischemic stroke. Neurology 2016; 87(18): 1856-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003283] [PMID: 27694266]
[25]
Arihiro S, Todo K, Koga M, et al. Three-month risk-benefit profile of anticoagulation after stroke with atrial fibrillation: The SAMURAI-Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation (NVAF) study. Int J Stroke 2016; 11(5): 565-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747493016632239] [PMID: 26927811]
[26]
Wilson D, Ambler G, Banerjee G, et al. Early versus late anticoagulation for ischaemic stroke associated with atrial fibrillation: Multicentre cohort study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2019; 90(3): 320-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-318890] [PMID: 30455404]
[27]
Escudero-Martinez I, Mazya M, Teutsch C, et al. Dabigatran initiation in patients with non-valvular AF and first acute ischaemic stroke: Aretrospective observational study from the SITS registry. BMJ Open 2020; 10(5): e037234.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037234] [PMID: 32434935]
[28]
Cappellari M, Carletti M, Danese A, Bovi P. Early introduction of direct oral anticoagulants in cardioembolic stroke patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2016; 42(3): 393-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11239-016-1393-9] [PMID: 27329483]
[29]
Macha K, Volbers B, Bobinger T, et al. Early initiation of anticoagulation with direct oral anticoagulants in patients after transient ischemic attack or ischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2016; 25(9): 2317-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.06.031] [PMID: 27449113]
[30]
Deguchi I, Tanahashi N, Takao M. Timing of treatment initiation with oral anticoagulants for acute ischemic stroke in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Circ J 2017; 81(2): 180-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1253/circj.CJ-16-0923] [PMID: 27980235]
[31]
Gioia LC, Kate M, Sivakumar L, et al. Early rivaroxaban use after cardioembolic stroke may not result in hemorrhagic transformation. Stroke 2016; 47(7): 1917-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.013491] [PMID: 27222524]
[32]
Hong KS, Kwon SU, Lee SH, et al. Rivaroxaban vs Warfarin Sodium in the ultra-early period after atrial fibrillation-related mild ischemic stroke. JAMA Neurol 2017; 74(10): 1206-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.2161] [PMID: 28892526]
[33]
Yaghi S, Trivedi T, Henninger N, et al. Anticoagulation timing in cardioembolic stroke and recurrent event risk. Ann Neurol 2020; 88(4): 807-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.25844] [PMID: 32656768]
[34]
Fischer U, Trelle S, Branca M, et al. Early versus international, multicentre, randomised-controlled, two-arm, open, assessor-blinded trial. Eur Stroke J 2022; 7(4): 487-97.
[35]
Werring D, Arram L, Bennett K, et al. Optimal timing of anticoagulation after acute ischemic stroke with atrial fibrillation (OPTIMAS): Protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Int J Stroke 2022; 17(5): 583-9.
[36]
Åsberg S, Hijazi Z, Norrving B, Terént A, Öhagen P, Oldgren J. Timing of oral anticoagulant therapy in acute ischemic stroke with atrial fibrillation: Study protocol for a registry-based randomised controlled trial. Trials 2017; 18(1): 581.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13063-017-2313-9] [PMID: 29197413]
[37]
King BT, Lawrence PD, Milling TJ, Warach SJ. Optimal delay time to initiate anticoagulation after ischemic stroke in atrial fibrillation (START): Methodology of a pragmatic, response-adaptive, prospective randomized clinical trial. Int J Stroke 2019; 14(9): 977-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747493019870651] [PMID: 31423922]
[38]
Kernan WN, Ovbiagele B, Black HR, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke and transient ischemic attack: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2014; 45(7): 2160-236.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STR.0000000000000024] [PMID: 24788967]
[39]
Rothberg MB, Celestin C, Fiore LD, Lawler E, Cook JR. Warfarin plus aspirin after myocardial infarction or the acute coronary syndrome: Meta-analysis with estimates of risk and benefit. Ann Intern Med 2005; 143(4): 241-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-143-4-200508160-00005] [PMID: 16103468]
[40]
Hansen ML, Sørensen R, Clausen MT, et al. Risk of bleeding with single, dual, or triple therapy with warfarin, aspirin, and clopidogrel in patients with atrial fibrillation. Arch Intern Med 2010; 170(16): 1433-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2010.271] [PMID: 20837828]
[41]
Lane DA, Kamphuisen PW, Minini P, Büller HR, Lip GYH. Bleeding risk in patients with atrial fibrillation: The AMADEUS study. Chest 2011; 140(1): 146-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.10-3270] [PMID: 21415134]
[42]
Dewilde WJM, Oirbans T, Verheugt FWA, et al. Use of clopidogrel with or without aspirin in patients taking oral anticoagulant therapy and undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: An open-label, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet 2013; 381(9872): 1107-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62177-1] [PMID: 23415013]
[43]
Gibson CM, Mehran R, Bode C, et al. Prevention of bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation undergoing PCI. N Engl J Med 2016; 375(25): 2423-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1611594] [PMID: 27959713]
[44]
Cannon CP, Bhatt DL, Oldgren J, et al. Dual antithrombotic therapy with dabigatran after PCI in atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(16): 1513-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1708454] [PMID: 28844193]
[45]
Lopes RD, Heizer G, Aronson R, et al. Antithrombotic therapy after acute coronary syndrome or PCI in atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2019; 380(16): 1509-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1817083] [PMID: 30883055]
[46]
Wright RS, Anderson JL, Adams CD, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA focused update of the guidelines for the management of patients with Unstable Angina/Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction (Updating the 2007 Guideline). Circulation 2011; 123(18): 2022-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e31820f2f3e] [PMID: 21444889]
[47]
Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2007; 357(20): 2001-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0706482] [PMID: 17982182]
[48]
Wallentin L, Becker RC, Budaj A, et al. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2009; 361(11): 1045-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0904327] [PMID: 19717846]
[49]
Khorana AA, Francis CW, Culakova E, Kuderer NM, Lyman GH. Thromboembolism is a leading cause of death in cancer patients receiving outpatient chemotherapy. J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5(3): 632-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02374.x] [PMID: 17319909]
[50]
Shin YW, Lee ST, Jung KH, et al. Predictors of survival for patients with cancer after cryptogenic stroke. J Neurooncol 2016; 128(2): 277-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11060-016-2106-0] [PMID: 26968716]
[51]
Nam KW, Kim CK, Kim TJ, et al. D-dimer as a predictor of early neurologic deterioration in cryptogenic stroke with active cancer. Eur J Neurol 2017; 24(1): 205-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ene.13184] [PMID: 27766716]
[52]
Farge D, Frere C, Connors JM, et al. 2019 international clinical practice guidelines for the treatment and prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. Lancet Oncol 2019; 20(10): e566-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(19)30336-5] [PMID: 31492632]
[53]
Lee MJ, Chung JW, Ahn MJ, et al. Hypercoagulability and mortality of patients with stroke and active cancer: The OASIS-CANCER study. J Stroke 2017; 19(1): 77-87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5853/jos.2016.00570] [PMID: 28030894]
[54]
Jang H, Lee JJ, Lee MJ, et al. Comparison of enoxaparin and warfarin for secondary prevention of cancer-associated stroke. J Oncol 2015; 2015: 1-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/502089] [PMID: 26064116]
[55]
Shah S, Norby FL, Datta YH, et al. Comparative effectiveness of direct oral anticoagulants and warfarin in patients with cancer and atrial fibrillation. Blood Adv 2018; 2(3): 200-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2017010694] [PMID: 29378726]
[56]
Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: A Lideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2019; 50(12): e344-418.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STR.0000000000000211] [PMID: 31662037]
[57]
Vane JR, Botting RM. The mechanism of action of aspirin. Thromb Res 2003; 110(5-6): 255-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0049-3848(03)00379-7] [PMID: 14592543]
[58]
The International Stroke Trial (IST). A randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous heparin, both, or neither among 19 435 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997; 349(9065): 1569-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)04011-7] [PMID: 9174558]
[59]
Chen Z-M. CAST: Randomised placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20000 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997; 349(9066): 1641-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)04010-5] [PMID: 9186381]
[60]
Sandercock PAG, Counsell C, Tseng MC, Cecconi E. Oral antiplatelet therapy for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Libr 2014; 2014(3): CD000029.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000029.pub3] [PMID: 24668137]
[61]
van Gijn J, Algra A, Kappelle J, Koudstaal PJ, van Latum A. A comparison of two doses of aspirin (30 mg vs. 283 mg a day) in patients after a transient ischemic attack or minor ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1991; 325(18): 1261-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199110313251801] [PMID: 1922220]
[62]
Farrell B, Godwin J, Richards S, Warlow C. The United Kingdom transient ischaemic attack (UK-TIA) aspirin trial: Final results. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54(12): 1044-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.54.12.1044] [PMID: 1783914]
[63]
Algra A, van Gijn J. Aspirin at any dose above 30 mg offers only modest protection after cerebral ischaemia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60(2): 197-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.60.2.197] [PMID: 8708654]
[64]
Rothwell PM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Effects of aspirin on risks of vascular events and cancer according to bodyweight and dose: Analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials. Lancet 2018; 392(10145): 387-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31133-4] [PMID: 30017552]
[65]
Zinkstok SM, Roos YB. Early administration of aspirin in patients treated with alteplase for acute ischaemic stroke: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2012; 380(9843): 731-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60949-0] [PMID: 22748820]
[66]
Adeoye O, Moy C, Janis S, et al. The multiarm optimization of stroke thrombolysis phase 3 acute stroke randomized clinical trial: Rationale and methods. Int J Stroke 2021; 16(7): 873-80.
[67]
Collet JP, Montalescot G. P2Y12 inhibitors. Hamostaseologie 2009; 29(4): 339-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0037-1617136] [PMID: 19882081]
[68]
Committee CS. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet 1996; 348(9038): 1329-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)09457-3] [PMID: 8918275]
[69]
Meyer DM, Albright KC, Allison TA, Grotta JC. LOAD: A pilot study of the safety of loading of aspirin and clopidogrel in acute ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2008; 17(1): 26-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2007.09.006] [PMID: 18190818]
[70]
Diener HC, Bogousslavsky J, Brass LM, et al. Aspirin and clopidogrel compared with clopidogrel alone after recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack in high-risk patients (MATCH): Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364(9431): 331-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16721-4] [PMID: 15276392]
[71]
Bhatt DL, Fox KAA, Hacke W, et al. Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med 2006; 354(16): 1706-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa060989] [PMID: 16531616]
[72]
Benavente OR, Hart RG, McClure LA, et al. Effects of clopidogrel added to aspirin in patients with recent lacunar stroke. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(9): 817-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1204133] [PMID: 22931315]
[73]
Diener HC, Bogousslavsky J, Brass LM, et al. Management of atherothrombosis with clopidogrel in high-risk patients with recent transient ischaemic attack or ischaemic stroke (MATCH): Study design and baseline data. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004; 17(2-3): 253-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000076962] [PMID: 14981346]
[74]
Wang Y, Wang Y, Zhao X, et al. Clopidogrel with aspirin in acute minor stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(1): 11-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1215340] [PMID: 23803136]
[75]
Kennedy J, Hill MD, Ryckborst KJ, Eliasziw M, Demchuk AM, Buchan AM. Fast assessment of stroke and transient ischaemic attack to prevent early recurrence (FASTER): A randomised controlled pilot trial. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6(11): 961-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70250-8] [PMID: 17931979]
[76]
Johnston SC, Easton JD, Farrant M, et al. Platelet-oriented inhibition in new TIA and minor ischemic stroke (POINT) trial: Rationale and design. Int J Stroke 2013; 8(6): 479-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijs.12129] [PMID: 23879752]
[77]
Hou X, Li X, Wang X, Chen H. Antiplatelet therapy in Acute Mild-Moderate Ischemic Stroke (ATAMIS): A parallel, randomised, open-label, multicentre, prospective study. Stroke Vasc Neurol 2018; 3(4): 263-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/svn-2018-000148] [PMID: 30637134]
[78]
Chimowitz MI, Lynn MJ, Derdeyn CP, et al. Stenting versus aggressive medical therapy for intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(11): 993-1003.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1105335] [PMID: 21899409]
[79]
Chimowitz MI, Lynn MJ, Howlett-Smith H, et al. Comparison of warfarin and aspirin for symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med 2005; 352(13): 1305-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa043033] [PMID: 15800226]
[80]
Comparison of Anti-coagulation and Anti-Platelet Therapies for Intracranial Vascular Atherostenosis (CAPTIVA). ClinicalTrialsgov Identifier: NCT05047172 2021. Available from: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05047172
[81]
Wong KSL, Chen C, Fu J, et al. Clopidogrel plus aspirin versusaspirin alone for reducing embolisation in patients with acute symptomatic cerebral or carotid artery stenosis (CLAIR study): A randomised, open-label, blinded-endpoint trial. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9(5): 489-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70060-0] [PMID: 20335070]
[82]
Markus HS, Droste DW, Kaps M, et al. Dual antiplatelet therapy with clopidogrel and aspirin in symptomatic carotid stenosis evaluated using doppler embolic signal detection: The Clopidogrel and Aspirin for Reduction of Emboli in Symptomatic Carotid Stenosis (CARESS) trial. Circulation 2005; 111(17): 2233-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000163561.90680.1C] [PMID: 15851601]
[83]
Gresele P, Arnout J, Deckmyn H, Vermylen J. Mechanism of the antiplatelet action of dipyridamole in whole blood: Modulation of adenosine concentration and activity. Thromb Haemost 1986; 55(1): 012-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1661437] [PMID: 3704998]
[84]
Diener HC, Cunha L, Forbes C, Sivenius J, Smets P, Lowenthal A. European Stroke Prevention Study 2. Dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke. J Neurol Sci 1996; 143(1-2): 1-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-510X(96)00308-5] [PMID: 8981292]
[85]
Halkes PH, van Gijn J, Kappelle LJ, Koudstaal PJ, Algra A, Algra A. Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin alone after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): Randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367(9523): 1665-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68734-5] [PMID: 16714187]
[86]
Sacco RL, Diener HC, Yusuf S, et al. Aspirin and extended-release dipyridamole versus clopidogrel for recurrent stroke. N Engl J Med 2008; 359(12): 1238-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0805002] [PMID: 18753638]
[87]
Gent M, Donald Easton J, Hachinski VC, et al. The Canadian American Ticlopidine Study (CATS) in thromboembolic stroke. Lancet 1989; 333(8649): 1215-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(89)92327-1] [PMID: 2566778]
[88]
Gorelick PB, Richardson D, Kelly M, et al. Aspirin and ticlopidine for prevention of recurrent stroke in black patients: A randomized trial. JAMA 2003; 289(22): 2947-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.22.2947] [PMID: 12799402]
[89]
Johnston SC, Amarenco P, Albers GW, et al. Acute stroke or transient ischemic attack treated with aspirin or ticagrelor and patient outcomes (socrates) trial: Rationale and design. Int J Stroke 2015; 10(8): 1304-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijs.12610] [PMID: 26311628]
[90]
Wang Y, Chen W, Lin Y, et al. Ticagrelor plus aspirinversusclopidogrel plus aspirin for platelet reactivity in patients with minor stroke or transient ischaemic attack: Open label, blinded endpoint, randomised controlled phase II trial. BMJ 2019; 365: l2211.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l2211] [PMID: 31171523]
[91]
Amarenco P, Denison H, Evans SR, et al. Ticagrelor added to aspirin in acute ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack in prevention of disabling stroke: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol 2020; 78(2): 1-9.
[92]
Sudo T, Tachibana K, Toga K, et al. Potent effects of novel anti-platelet aggregatory cilostamide analogues on recombinant cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase isozyme activity. Biochem Pharmacol 2000; 59(4): 347-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-2952(99)00346-9] [PMID: 10644042]
[93]
Gotoh F, Tohgi H, Hirai S, et al. Cilostazol stroke prevention study: A placebo-controlled double-blind trial for secondary prevention of cerebral infarction. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2000; 9(4): 147-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/jscd.2000.7216] [PMID: 24192020]
[94]
Shinohara Y, Katayama Y, Uchiyama S, et al. Cilostazol for prevention of secondary stroke (CSPS 2): An aspirin-controlled, double-blind, randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9(10): 959-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70198-8] [PMID: 20833591]
[95]
Huang Y, Cheng Y, Wu J, et al. Cilostazol as an alternative to aspirin after ischaemic stroke: A randomised, double-blind, pilot study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7(6): 494-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70094-2] [PMID: 18456558]
[96]
McHutchison C, Blair GW, Appleton JP, et al. Cilostazol for secondary prevention of stroke and cognitive Decline. Stroke 2020; 51(8): 2374-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.029454] [PMID: 32646330]
[97]
Toyoda K, Uchiyama S, Yamaguchi T, et al. Dual antiplatelet therapy using cilostazol for secondary prevention in patients with high-risk ischaemic stroke in Japan: A multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2019; 18(6): 539-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30148-6] [PMID: 31122494]
[98]
Hemphill JC III, Greenberg SM, Anderson CS, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2015; 46(7): 2032-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STR.0000000000000069] [PMID: 26022637]
[99]
Biffi A, Anderson CD, Battey TWK, et al. Association between blood pressure control and risk of recurrent intracerebral hemorrhage. JAMA 2015; 314(9): 904-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.10082] [PMID: 26325559]
[100]
Gage BF, van Walraven C, Pearce L, et al. Selecting patients with atrial fibrillation for anticoagulation: Stroke risk stratification in patients taking aspirin. Circulation 2004; 110(16): 2287-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000145172.55640.93] [PMID: 15477396]
[101]
Pisters R, Lane DA, Nieuwlaat R, de Vos CB, Crijns HJGM, Lip GYH. A novel user-friendly score (HAS-BLED) to assess 1-year risk of major bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation: The Euro Heart Survey. Chest 2010; 138(5): 1093-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.10-0134] [PMID: 20299623]
[102]
Kuramatsu JB, Huttner HB. Management of oral anticoagulation after intracerebral hemorrhage. Int J Stroke 2019; 14(3): 238-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747493019828555] [PMID: 30762497]
[103]
Witt DM, Delate T, Hylek EM, et al. Effect of warfarin on intracranial hemorrhage incidence and fatal outcomes. Thromb Res 2013; 132(6): 770-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2013.10.024] [PMID: 24521790]
[104]
Majeed A, Kim YK, Roberts RS, Holmström M, Schulman S. Optimal timing of resumption of warfarin after intracranial hemorrhage. Stroke 2010; 41(12): 2860-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.593087] [PMID: 21030703]
[105]
Claassen DO, Kazemi N, Zubkov AY, Wijdicks EFM, Rabinstein AA. Restarting anticoagulation therapy after warfarin-associated intracerebral hemorrhage. Arch Neurol 2008; 65(10): 1313-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.65.10.1313] [PMID: 18852344]
[106]
Nielsen PB, Larsen TB, Skjøth F, Gorst-Rasmussen A, Rasmussen LH, Lip GYH. Restarting anticoagulant treatment after intracranial hemorrhage in patients with atrial fibrillation and the impact on recurrent stroke, mortality, and bleeding. Circulation 2015; 132(6): 517-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.015735] [PMID: 26059010]
[107]
Murthy SB, Gupta A, Merkler AE, et al. Restarting anticoagulant therapy after intracranial hemorrhage. Stroke 2017; 48(6): 1594-600.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.016327] [PMID: 28416626]
[108]
Vleeschouwer SD, Calenbergh FV, Loon J, Nuttin B, Coffin J, Plets C. Risk analysis of thrombo-embolic and recurrent bleeding events in the management of intracranial haemorrhage due to oral anticoagulation. Acta Chir Belg 2005; 105(3): 268-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00015458.2005.11679715] [PMID: 16018519]
[109]
Gathier CS, Algra A, Rinkel GJE, van der Worp HB. Long-term outcome after anticoagulation-associated intracerebral haemorrhage with or without restarting antithrombotic therapy. Cerebrovasc Dis 2013; 36(1): 33-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000351151] [PMID: 23920426]
[110]
Kuramatsu JB, Gerner ST, Schellinger PD, et al. Anticoagulant reversal, blood pressure levels, and anticoagulant resumption in patients with anticoagulation-related intracerebral hemorrhage. JAMA 2015; 313(8): 824-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.0846] [PMID: 25710659]
[111]
Ottosen TP, Grijota M, Hansen ML, et al. Use of antithrombotic therapy and long-term clinical outcome among patients surviving intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2016; 47(7): 1837-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.012945] [PMID: 27301947]
[112]
Anticoagulation in ICH Survivors for Stroke Prevention and Recovery (ASPIRE). ClinicalTrialsgov Identifier: NCT03907046 2019. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03907046
[113]
Ruff CT, Giugliano RP, Braunwald E, et al. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of new oral anticoagulants with warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation: A meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2014; 383(9921): 955-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62343-0] [PMID: 24315724]
[114]
Aguilar MI, Hart RG, Kase CS, et al. Treatment of warfarin-associated intracerebral hemorrhage: Literature review and expert opinion. Mayo Clin Proc 2007; 82(1): 82-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0025-6196(11)60970-1] [PMID: 17285789]
[115]
Pennlert J, Overholser R, Asplund K, et al. Optimal timing of anticoagulant treatment after intracerebral hemorrhage in patients with atrial fibrillation. Stroke 2017; 48(2): 314-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.014643] [PMID: 27999135]
[116]
Macellari F, Paciaroni M, Agnelli G, Caso V. Neuroimaging in intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2014; 45(3): 903-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.003701] [PMID: 24425128]
[117]
Park YA, Uhm JS, Pak HN, Lee MH, Joung B. Anticoagulation therapy in atrial fibrillation after intracranial hemorrhage. Heart Rhythm 2016; 13(9): 1794-802.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2016.05.016] [PMID: 27554947]
[118]
Kuramatsu JB, Sembill JA, Gerner ST, et al. Management of therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with intracerebral haemorrhage and mechanical heart valves. Eur Heart J 2018; 39(19): 1709-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehy056] [PMID: 29529259]
[119]
Eckman MH, Rosand J, Knudsen KA, Singer DE, Greenberg SM. Can patients be anticoagulated after intracerebral hemorrhage? A decision analysis. Stroke 2003; 34(7): 1710-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000078311.18928.16] [PMID: 12805495]
[120]
Poon MTC, Fonville AF, Al-Shahi Salman R. Long-term prognosis after intracerebral haemorrhage: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014; 85(6): 660-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2013-306476] [PMID: 24262916]
[121]
Wilson D, Ambler G, Shakeshaft C, et al. Cerebral microbleeds and intracranial haemorrhage risk in patients anticoagulated for atrial fibrillation after acute ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack (CROMIS-2): A multicentre observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2018; 17(6): 539-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30145-5] [PMID: 29778365]
[122]
Woo D, Sauerbeck LR, Kissela BM, et al. Genetic and environmental risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage: Preliminary results of a population-based study. Stroke 2002; 33(5): 1190-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000014774.88027.22] [PMID: 11988589]
[123]
Falcone GJ, Radmanesh F, Brouwers HB, et al. APOE variants increase risk of warfarin-related intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2014; 83(13): 1139-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000816] [PMID: 25150286]
[124]
Wiegele M, Schöchl H, Haushofer A, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach in adult patients with traumatic brain injury receiving oral anticoagulant therapy: An Austrian interdisciplinary consensus statement. Crit Care 2019; 23(1): 62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13054-019-2352-6] [PMID: 30795779]
[125]
Albrecht JS, Liu X, Zuckerman IH. Risks and benefits of resumption of anticoagulation following traumatic brain injury remain complex and uncertain-reply. JAMA Intern Med 2015; 175(5): 866-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.0301] [PMID: 25938319]
[126]
Matsushima K, Inaba K, Cho J, et al. Therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Surg Res 2016; 205(1): 186-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2016.06.042] [PMID: 27621017]
[127]
Tykocki T, Guzek K. Anticoagulation therapy in traumatic brain injury. World Neurosurg 2016; 89: 497-504.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2016.01.063] [PMID: 26850974]
[128]
King B, Milling T, Gajewski B, et al. Restarting and timing of oral anticoagulation after traumatic intracranial hemorrhage: A review and summary of ongoing and planned prospective randomized clinical trials. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open 2020; 5(1): e000605.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/tsaco-2020-000605] [PMID: 33313417]
[129]
He J, Whelton PK, Vu B, Klag MJ. Aspirin and risk of hemorrhagic stroke: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 1998; 280(22): 1930-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.22.1930] [PMID: 9851479]
[130]
Al-Shahi Salman R, Dennis MS, Sandercock PAG, et al. Effects of antiplatelet therapy after stroke due to intracerebral haemorrhage (RESTART): A randomised, open-label trial. Lancet 2019; 393(10191): 2613-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30840-2] [PMID: 31128924]
[131]
Murthy SB, Biffi A, Falcone GJ, et al. Antiplatelet therapy after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage and functional outcomes. Stroke 2019; 50(11): 3057-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.025972] [PMID: 31895618]
[132]
Al-Shahi Salman R, Minks DP, Mitra D, et al. Effects of antiplatelet therapy on stroke risk by brain imaging features of intracerebral haemorrhage and cerebral small vessel diseases: Subgroup analyses of the RESTART randomised, open-label trial. Lancet Neurol 2019; 18(7): 643-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30184-X] [PMID: 31129065]
[133]
Viswanathan A, Rakich SM, Engel C, et al. Antiplatelet use after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2006; 66(2): 206-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000194267.09060.77] [PMID: 16434655]
[134]
Biffi A, Halpin A, Towfighi A, et al. Aspirin and recurrent intracerebral hemorrhage in cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Neurology 2010; 75(8): 693-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181eee40f] [PMID: 20733144]
[135]
Akoudad S, Portegies MLP, Koudstaal PJ, et al. Cerebral microbleeds are associated with an increased risk of stroke. Circulation 2015; 132(6): 509-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.016261] [PMID: 26137955]
[136]
Wilson D, Werring DJ. Antithrombotic therapy in patients with cerebral microbleeds. Curr Opin Neurol 2017; 30(1): 38-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000411] [PMID: 27898582]
[137]
Lau KK, Wong YK, Teo KC, et al. Long‐Term prognostic implications of cerebral microbleeds in Chinese patients with ischemic stroke. J Am Heart Assoc 2017; 6(12): e007360.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.007360] [PMID: 29217662]
[138]
Lau KK, Lovelock CE, Li L, et al. Antiplatelet treatment after transient ischemic attack and ischemic stroke in patients with cerebral microbleeds in 2 large cohorts and an updated systematic review. Stroke 2018; 49(6): 1434-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.020104] [PMID: 29748422]
[139]
Blackshear JL, Odell JA. Appendage obliteration to reduce stroke in cardiac surgical patients with atrial fibrillation. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 61(2): 755-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-4975(95)00887-X] [PMID: 8572814]
[140]
January CT, Wann LS, Calkins H, et al. 2019 AHA/ACC/HRS Focused Update of the 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines and the heart rhythm society in collaboration with the society of thoracic Surgeons. Circulation 2019; 140(2): e125-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000665] [PMID: 30686041]
[141]
Kirchhof P, Benussi S, Kotecha D, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS. Eur Heart J 2016; 37(38): 2893-962.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehw210] [PMID: 27567408]
[142]
Mobius-Winkler S, Sandri M, Mangner N, Lurz P, Dahnert I, Schuler G. The WATCHMAN left atrial appendage closure device for atrial fibrillation. J Vis Exp 2012; 28(60): 3671.
[143]
Reddy VY, Sievert H, Halperin J, et al. Percutaneous left atrial appendage closure vs warfarin for atrial fibrillation: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014; 312(19): 1988-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.15192] [PMID: 25399274]
[144]
Holmes DR Jr, Kar S, Price MJ, et al. Prospective randomized evaluation of the Watchman Left Atrial Appendage Closure device in patients with atrial fibrillation versus long-term warfarin therapy: The PREVAIL trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; 64(1): 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2014.04.029] [PMID: 24998121]
[145]
Holmes DR Jr, Doshi SK, Kar S, et al. Left atrial appendage closure as an alternative to warfarin for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015; 65(24): 2614-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.04.025] [PMID: 26088300]
[146]
Reddy VY, Möbius-Winkler S, Miller MA, et al. Left atrial appendage closure with the Watchman device in patients with a contraindication for oral anticoagulation: The ASAP study (ASA Plavix Feasibility Study With Watchman Left Atrial Appendage Closure Technology). J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 61(25): 2551-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2013.03.035] [PMID: 23583249]
[147]
Holmes DR, Reddy VY, Buchbinder M, et al. The Assessment of the Watchman Device in Patients Unsuitable for Oral Anticoagulation (ASAP-TOO) trial. Am Heart J 2017; 189: 68-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2017.03.007] [PMID: 28625383]
[148]
Massumi A, Chelu MG, Nazeri A, et al. Initial experience with a novel percutaneous left atrial appendage exclusion device in patients with atrial fibrillation, increased stroke risk, and contraindications to anticoagulation. Am J Cardiol 2013; 111(6): 869-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.11.061] [PMID: 23312129]
[149]
Bartus K, Han FT, Bednarek J, et al. Percutaneous left atrial appendage suture ligation using the LARIAT device in patients with atrial fibrillation: Initial clinical experience. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62(2): 108-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2012.06.046] [PMID: 23062528]
[150]
Stone D, Byrne T, Pershad A. Early results with the LARIAT device for left atrial appendage exclusion in patients with atrial fibrillation at high risk for stroke and anticoagulation. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2015; 86(1): 121-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ccd.25065] [PMID: 23765504]
[151]
Charidimou A, Karayiannis C, Song TJ, et al. Brain microbleeds, anticoagulation, and hemorrhage risk. Neurology 2017; 89(23): 2317-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000004704] [PMID: 29117953]
[152]
Schlemm L, Endres M, Werring DJ, Nolte CH. Benefit of intravenous thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke patients with high cerebral microbleed burden. Stroke 2020; 51(1): 232-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.027633] [PMID: 31739772]
[153]
O’Donnell MJ, Eikelboom JW, Yusuf S, et al. Effect of apixaban on brain infarction and microbleeds: AVERROES-MRI assessment study. Am Heart J 2016; 178: 145-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2016.03.019] [PMID: 27502862]
[154]
Bousser MG, Chiras J, Bories J, Castaigne P. Cerebral venous thrombosis - a review of 38 cases. Stroke 1985; 16(2): 199-213.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.16.2.199] [PMID: 3975957]
[155]
Gotoh M, Ohmoto T, Kuyama H. Experimental study of venous circulatory disturbance by dural sinus occlusion. Acta Neurochir 1993; 124(2-4): 120-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01401133] [PMID: 8304057]
[156]
Ferro JM, Bousser MG, Canhão P, et al. European Stroke Organization guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of cerebral venous thrombosis - endorsed by the European Academy of Neurology. Eur J Neurol 2017; 24(10): 1203-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ene.13381] [PMID: 28833980]
[157]
Einhäupl KM, Villringer A, Mehraein S, et al. Heparin treatment in sinus venous thrombosis. Lancet 1991; 338(8767): 597-600.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(91)90607-Q] [PMID: 1679154]
[158]
de Bruijn SFTM, Stam J. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of anticoagulant treatment with low-molecular-weight heparin for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Stroke 1999; 30(3): 484-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.30.3.484] [PMID: 10066840]
[159]
Stam J, De Bruijn SF, DeVeber G. Anticoagulation for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; (4): CD002005.
[PMID: 12519565]
[160]
Coutinho JM, Ferro JM, Canhão P, Barinagarrementeria F, Bousser MG, Stam J. Unfractionated or low-molecular weight heparin for the treatment of cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke 2010; 41(11): 2575-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.588822] [PMID: 20930161]
[161]
Misra UK, Kalita J, Chandra S, Kumar B, Bansal V. Low molecular weight heparin versus unfractionated heparin in cerebral venous sinus thrombosis: A randomized controlled trial. Eur J Neurol 2012; 19(7): 1030-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2012.03690.x] [PMID: 22416902]
[162]
Afshari D, Moradian N, Nasiri F, Razazian N, Bostani A, Sariaslani P. The efficacy and safety of low-molecular-weight heparin and unfractionated heparin in the treatment of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. Neurosciences 2015; 20(4): 357-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.17712/nsj.2015.4.20150375] [PMID: 26492115]
[163]
Ferro JM, Canhão P, Stam J, Bousser MG, Barinagarrementeria F, Investigators I. Prognosis of cerebral vein and dural sinus thrombosis: Results of the International Study on Cerebral Vein and Dural Sinus Thrombosis (ISCVT). Stroke 2004; 35(3): 664-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000117571.76197.26] [PMID: 14976332]
[164]
Kearon C, Kahn SR, Agnelli G, Goldhaber S, Raskob GE, Comerota AJ. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133(6): 454S-545S.
[165]
Ferro JM, Coutinho JM, Dentali F, et al. Safety and efficacy of dabigatran etexilate vs dose-adjusted warfarin in patients with cerebral venous thrombosis: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol 2019; 76(12): 1457-65.
[166]
Wasay M, Khan M, Rajput HM, et al. New oral anticoagulants versus warfarin for cerebral venous thrombosis: A multi-center, observational study. J Stroke 2019; 21(2): 220-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5853/jos.2019.00150] [PMID: 31161765]
[167]
Yaghi S, Shu L, Bakradze E, et al. Direct oral anticoagulants versus warfarin in the treatment of cerebral venous thrombosis (ACTION-CVT): A multicenter international study. Stroke 2022; 53(3): 728-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.121.037541] [PMID: 35143325]
[168]
Johnston SC, Easton JD, Farrant M, et al. Clopidogrel and aspirin in acute ischemic stroke and high-risk TIA. N Engl J Med 2018; 379(3): 215-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1800410] [PMID: 29766750]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy