Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pediatric Reviews

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-3963
ISSN (Online): 1875-6336

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Knowlesi Malaria in Children

Author(s): Kriti Mohan*, Manish Kumar and Balram Ji Omar

Volume 19, Issue 3, 2023

Published on: 14 November, 2022

Page: [242 - 252] Pages: 11

DOI: 10.2174/1573396318666220401110835

Price: $65

Abstract

The fifth malaria parasite causing malaria- Plasmodium knowlesi (Pk), is not a novel emergent species but was an undiagnosed species before the availability of molecular methods as a tool from diagnostics and sometimes confused with morphologically similar human malaria parasite P. malariae or P. falciparum. Now it is well-distributed species in Southeast Asia, especially in Malaysia. Since 2004, cases of Pk malaria are continuously being reported in adults. Though adult age, forest-related activities and a recent visit to forested areas are well-known factors, childhood did not remain untouched by this disease. Few pieces of research and reports in the literature indicate that Infection in children is uncomplicated, but this may be attributed to the scarcity of data and research in this field. Pk malaria in pregnant females and infants are being well reported, so this indicates that the problem is not only restricted to known factors related to the disease, but we should think out of the box and take action before the disease takes the form of significant health burden on the human population as P. vivax and P. falciparum species did in the past. With the reports in literature of Pk malaria in pregnancy and early infancy, the possibility of congenital and neonatal malaria also cannot be denied. So more and more research is needed to understand Pk malaria in the pediatric population clearly. So this running review covers the problem status, demographic profile, clinical and haematological features, diagnosis, management and outcome of Pk malaria in paediatric group worldwide. This review also discusses the gaps in our present knowledge of the real problem status, prevention, control, diagnosis and management of Pk malaria, particularly in this age group.

Keywords: Plasmodium knowlesi, malaria, children, simian, zoonotic, fifth malaria parasite

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Garnham PCC. Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific 1966.
[2]
Telford SR. Hemoparasites of the Reptilia. Florida: CRC Press 2009.
[3]
Valkiūnas G. Avian Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press 2005.
[4]
Singh B, Sung LK, Matusop A, et al. A large focus of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human beings. Lancet 2004; 363(9414): 1017-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15836-4] [PMID: 15051281]
[5]
White NJ. Plasmodium knowlesi: the fifth human malaria parasite. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46(2): 172-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/524889] [PMID: 18171246]
[6]
Cox-Singh J, Singh B. Knowlesi malaria: Newly emergent and of public health importance? Trends Parasitol 2008; 24(9): 406-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2008.06.001] [PMID: 18678527]
[7]
Singh B, Daneshvar C. Human infections and detection of Plasmodium knowlesi. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013; 26(2): 165-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00079-12] [PMID: 23554413]
[8]
Barber BE, William T, Jikal M, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in children. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17(5): 814-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1705.101489] [PMID: 21529389]
[9]
William T, Rahman HA, Jelip J, et al. Increasing incidence of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria following control of P. falciparum and P. vivax Malaria in Sabah, Malaysia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7(1): e2026.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002026] [PMID: 23359830]
[10]
Yusof R, Lau YL, Mahmud R, et al. High proportion of knowlesi malaria in recent malaria cases in Malaysia. Malar J 2014; 13(1): 168.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-168] [PMID: 24886266]
[11]
Cooper DJ, Rajahram GS, William T, et al. Plasmodium Pk Malaria in Sabah, Malaysia, 2015-2017: Ongoing increase in incidence despite near-elimination of the human-only Plasmodium species. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 70(3): 361-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciz237] [PMID: 30889244]
[12]
Lubis IND, Wijaya H, Lubis M, et al. Contribution of Plasmodium knowlesi to multispecies human malaria infections in north sumatera, Indonesia. J Infect Dis 2017; 215(7): 1148-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jix091] [PMID: 28201638]
[13]
Barber BE, Grigg MJ, William T, Yeo TW, Anstey NM. The treatment of Plasmodium Pk malaria. Trends Parasitol 2017; 33(3): 242-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2016.09.002] [PMID: 27707609]
[14]
Daneshvar C, William T, Davis TM. Clinical features and management of Plasmodium knowlesi infections in humans. Parasitology 2018; 145(1): 18-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031182016002638] [PMID: 28122651]
[15]
World Health Organization (WHO). World Malaria Report 2016. Geneva:. 2016.
[16]
Kaur C, Pramanik A, Kumari K, et al. Renal detection of Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi in malaria associated acute kidney injury: a retrospective case-control study. BMC Res Notes 2020; 13(1): 37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13104-020-4900-1] [PMID: 31959229]
[17]
Luchavez J, Espino F, Curameng P, et al. Human Infections with Plasmodium knowlesi, the Philippines. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14(5): 811-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1405.071407] [PMID: 18439369]
[18]
Fan L, Lee SY, Koay E, Harkensee C. Plasmodium knowlesi infection: A diagnostic challenge. BMJ Case Rep 2013; 2013: bcr2013009558.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2013-009558] [PMID: 23608876]
[19]
Putaporntip C, Hongsrimuang T, Seethamchai S, et al. Differential prevalence of Plasmodium infections and cryptic Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans in Thailand. J Infect Dis 2009; 199(8): 1143-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/597414] [PMID: 19284284]
[20]
Pongvongsa T, Culleton R, Ha H, et al. Human infection with Plasmodium knowlesi on the Laos-Vietnam border. Trop Med Health 2018; 46(1): 33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s41182-018-0116-7] [PMID: 30250398]
[21]
Iwagami M, Nakatsu M, Khattignavong P, et al. First case of human infection with Plasmodium knowlesi in Laos. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12(3): e0006244.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006244] [PMID: 29565973]
[22]
Grigg MJ, William T, Barber BE, et al. Age-related clinical spectrum of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria and predictors of severity. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67(3): 350-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciy065] [PMID: 29873683]
[23]
Rajahram GS, Barber BE, William T, et al. Falling Plasmodium Pk malaria death rate among adults despite rising incidence, Sabah, Malay-sia, 2010-2014. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22(1): 41-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2201.151305] [PMID: 26690736]
[24]
Barber BE, William T, Dhararaj P, et al. Epidemiology of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in north-east Sabah, Malaysia: family clusters and wide age distribution. Malar J 2012; 11(1): 401.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-401] [PMID: 23216947]
[25]
Cox-Singh J, Davis TME, Lee KS, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans is widely distributed and potentially life threatening. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46(2): 165-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/524888] [PMID: 18171245]
[26]
Eede PV, Van HN, Van Overmeir C, et al. Human Plasmodium knowlesi infections in young children in central Vietnam. Malar J 2009; 8(1): 249.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-8-249] [PMID: 19878553]
[27]
Barber BE, Bird E, Wilkes CS, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 2015; 211(7): 1104-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu562] [PMID: 25301955]
[28]
Bird EM, Parameswaran U, William T, et al. Transfusion-transmitted severe Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in a splenectomized patient with beta-thalassaemia major in Sabah, Malaysia: a case report. Malar J 2016; 15(1): 357.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12936-016-1398-z] [PMID: 27405869]
[29]
Traipattanakul J, Changpradub D, Trakulhun K, Phiboonbanakit D, Mungthin M. A first case of Plasmodium Pk malaria in Phramongkutklao Hospital. J Infect Dis Antimicrob Agents 2014; 31: 91-100.
[30]
Choudhury NJ, Dubey ML, Jolly JG, Kalra A, Mahajan RC, Ganguly NK. Post-transfusion malaria in thalassaemia patients. Blut 1990; 61(5): 314-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01732885] [PMID: 2271779]
[31]
Agrawal A, Rai P, Kelly S. Unique aspects of red blood cell transfusion in pediatric patients. Int J Clin Transfus Med 2016; 4: 43-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IJCTM.S70541]
[32]
Jiram AI, Vythilingam I. NoorAzian YM, Yusof YM, Azahari AH, Fong MY. Entomologic investigation of Plasmodium knowlesi vectors in Kuala Lipis, Pahang, Malaysia. Malar J 2012; 11(1): 213.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-213] [PMID: 22727041]
[33]
Jongwutiwes S, Buppan P, Kosuvin R, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi Malaria in humans and macaques, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17(10): 1799-806.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1710.110349] [PMID: 22000348]
[34]
Herdiana H, Irnawati I, Coutrier FN, et al. Two clusters of Plasmodium knowlesi cases in a malaria elimination area, Sabang Municipality, Aceh, Indonesia. Malar J 2018; 17(1): 186.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12936-018-2334-1] [PMID: 29720188]
[35]
World Health Organization (WHO). Available from: https://www. who.int/docs/defaultsource/documents/publications/gmp/guidelines-for-the-treatment-of-malaria-eng.pdf?sfvrsn=a0138b77_2 (Accessedon: 22/03/2021).
[36]
Kantele A, Jokiranta TS. Review of cases with the emerging fifth human malaria parasite, Plasmodium knowlesi. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52(11): 1356-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir180] [PMID: 21596677]
[37]
Ghai OP. Ghai essential pediatrics: Infections and infestations. (9th ed.), Pakistan: CBS Publishers 2019.
[38]
Available from. https://www.malariasite.com/clinical-features/(accessed on 24/04/2021).
[39]
Parija SC, Janagond A, Jeremiah SS. Challenges in diagnosis of Plasmodium knowlesi infections. Trop Parasitol 2014; 4(1): 25-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2229-5070.129156] [PMID: 24754023]
[40]
Coatney GR, Collins WE, Warren M, Contacos PG. The primate malarias. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Wel-fare 1971; pp. 231-44.
[41]
Barber BE, William T, Grigg MJ, Yeo TW, Anstey NM. Limitations of microscopy to differentiate Plasmodium species in a region co-endemic for Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi. Malar J 2013; 12(1): 8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-8] [PMID: 23294844]
[42]
Lee WC, Chin PW, Lau YL, et al. Hyperparasitaemic human Plasmodium knowlesi infection with atypical morphology in peninsular Ma-laysia. Malar J 2013; 12(1): 88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-88] [PMID: 23496970]
[43]
Grigg MJ, William T, Barber BE, et al. Plasmodium Pk malaria in children in Malaysia: No Severe disease despite an increased risk of anaemia compared to adults. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 95 (Suppl. 5): 205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh]
[44]
Murray CK, Bennett JW. Rapid diagnosis of malaria. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2009; 2009: 415953.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/415953] [PMID: 19547702]
[45]
Moody A. Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria parasites. Clin Microbiol Rev 2002; 15(1): 66-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.15.1.66-78.2002] [PMID: 11781267]
[46]
Barber BE, William T, Grigg MJ, Piera K, Yeo TW, Anstey NM. Evaluation of the sensitivity of a pLDH-based and an aldolase-based rapid diagnostic test for diagnosis of uncomplicated and severe malaria caused by PCR-confirmed Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium fal-ciparum, and Plasmodium vivax. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51(4): 1118-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.03285-12] [PMID: 23345297]
[47]
Foster D, Cox-Singh J, Mohamad DSA, Krishna S, Chin PP, Singh B. Evaluation of three rapid diagnostic tests for the detection of human infections with Plasmodium knowlesi. Malar J 2014; 13(1): 60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-60] [PMID: 24548805]
[48]
Kawai S, Hirai M, Haruki K, Tanabe K, Chigusa Y. Cross-reactivity in rapid diagnostic tests between human malaria and zoonotic simian malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi infections. Parasitol Int 2009; 58(3): 300-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2009.06.004] [PMID: 19527797]
[49]
Kim JY, Kim HH, Shin H, et al. Genetic variation of aldolase from Korean isolates of Plasmodium vivax and its usefulness in serodiagno-sis. Malar J 2012; 11(1): 159.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-159] [PMID: 22569198]
[50]
McCutchan TF, Piper RC, Makler MT. Use of malaria rapid diagnostic test to identify Plasmodium knowlesi infection. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14(11): 1750-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1411.080840] [PMID: 18976561]
[51]
Singh V, Kaushal DC, Rathaur S, Kumar N, Kaushal NA. Cloning, overexpression, purification and characterization of Plasmodium knowlesi lactate dehydrogenase. Protein Expr Purif 2012; 84(2): 195-203.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pep.2012.05.008] [PMID: 22683723]
[52]
Cheong FW, Lau YL, Mahmud R, Fong MY. Evaluation of recombinant Plasmodium knowlesi merozoite surface protein-1(33) for detec-tion of human malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013; 88(5): 835-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.12-0250] [PMID: 23509118]
[53]
Cheong FW, Fong MY, Lau YL, Mahmud R. Immunogenicity of bacterial-expressed recombinant Plasmodium knowlesi merozoite surface protein-142 (MSP-142). Malar J 2013; 12(1): 454.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-454] [PMID: 24354660]
[54]
Hakimi H, Nguyen TT, Suganuma K, et al. Development of monoclonal antibodies that target 1-Cys peroxiredoxin and differentiate Plas-modium falciparum from P. vivax and P. Pk. Trop Med Health 2013; 41(2): 55-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2149/tmh.2012-30] [PMID: 23874139]
[55]
Palaeya V, Lau YL, Mahmud R, Chen Y, Fong MY. Cloning, expression, and immunocharacterization of surface protein containing an altered thrombospondin repeat domain (SPATR) from Plasmodium knowlesi. Malar J 2013; 12(1): 182.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-182] [PMID: 23734702]
[56]
Lee KS, Cox-Singh J, Singh B. Morphological features and differential counts of Plasmodium knowles i parasites in naturally acquired human infections. Malar J 2009; 8(1): 73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-8-73] [PMID: 19383118]
[57]
Plowe CV, Djimde A, Bouare M, Doumbo O, Wellems TE. Pyrimethamine and proguanil resistance-conferring mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase: polymerase chain reaction methods for surveillance in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995; 52(6): 565-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1995.52.565] [PMID: 7611566]
[58]
Vythilingam I. NoorAzian YM, Huat T, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi in humans, macaques and mosquitoes in peninsular Malaysia. Parasit Vectors 2008; 1(1): 26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-1-26] [PMID: 18710577]
[59]
Conway DJ. Molecular epidemiology of malaria. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007; 20(1): 188-204.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00021-06] [PMID: 17223628]
[60]
Imwong M, Tanomsing N, Pukrittayakamee S, Day NPJ, White NJ, Snounou G. Spurious amplification of a Plasmodium vivax small-subunit RNA gene by use of primers currently used to detect P. knowlesi. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47(12): 4173-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00811-09] [PMID: 19812279]
[61]
Cox-Singh J, Mahayet S, Abdullah MS, Singh B. Increased sensitivity of malaria detection by nested polymerase chain reaction using sim-ple sampling and DNA extraction. Int J Parasitol 1997; 27(12): 1575-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7519(97)00147-1] [PMID: 9467744]
[62]
Divis PCS, Shokoples SE, Singh B, Yanow SK. A TaqMan real-time PCR assay for the detection and quantitation of Plasmodium knowlesi. Malar J 2010; 9(1): 344.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-9-344] [PMID: 21114872]
[63]
Chew CH, Lim YAL, Lee PC, Mahmud R, Chua KH. Hexaplex PCR detection system for identification of five human Plasmodium species with an internal control. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50(12): 4012-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.06454-11] [PMID: 23035191]
[64]
Calderaro A, Piccolo G, Gorrini C, et al. Accurate identification of the six human Plasmodium spp. causing imported malaria, including Plasmodium ovale wallikeri and Plasmodium knowlesi. Malar J 2013; 12(1): 321.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-321] [PMID: 24034175]
[65]
Shokoples SE, Ndao M, Kowalewska-Grochowska K, Yanow SK. Multiplexed real-time PCR assay for discrimination of Plasmodium species with improved sensitivity for mixed infections. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47(4): 975-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01858-08] [PMID: 19244467]
[66]
Goh XT, Lim YAL, Vythilingam I, et al. Increased detection of Plasmodium knowlesi in Sandakan division, Sabah as revealed by Plas-moNex™. Malar J 2013; 12(1): 264.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-264] [PMID: 23902626]
[67]
Lucchi NW, Poorak M, Oberstaller J, et al. A new single-step PCR assay for the detection of the zoonotic malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi. PLoS One 2012; 7(2): e31848.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031848] [PMID: 22363751]
[68]
Notomi T, Okayama H, Masubuchi H, et al. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res 2000; 28(12): 63e.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/28.12.e63] [PMID: 10871386]
[69]
Iseki H, Kawai S, Takahashi N, et al. Evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification method as a tool for diagnosis of infection by the zoonotic simian malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48(7): 2509-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00331-10] [PMID: 20444968]
[70]
Lau YL, Fong MY, Mahmud R, et al. Specific, sensitive and rapid detection of human plasmodium knowlesi infection by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) in blood samples. Malar J 2011; 10(1): 197.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-197] [PMID: 21774805]
[71]
Morris U, Aydin-Schmidt B. Performance and application of commercially available loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) kits in malaria endemic and non-endemic settings. Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11(2): 336.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics11020336] [PMID: 33670618]
[72]
Wilairatanal P, Krudsood S, Tangpukdee N. Management of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria without PCR confirmation. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2010; 41(1): 19-21.
[PMID: 20578477]
[73]
Barber BE, William T, Grigg MJ, et al. A prospective comparative study of Pk, falciparum, and vivax malaria in Sabah, Malaysia: High proportion with severe disease from Plasmodium Pk and Plasmodium vivax but no mortality with early referral and artesunate therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56(3): 383-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis902] [PMID: 23087389]
[74]
Kotepui M, Kotepui KU, Milanez GD, Masangkay FR. Prevalence of severe Plasmodium knowlesi infection and risk factors related to se-vere complications compared with non-severe P. knowlesi and severe P. falciparum malaria: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Dis Poverty 2020; 9(1): 106.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40249-020-00727-x] [PMID: 32727617]
[75]
Moon RW, Sharaf H, Hastings CH, et al. Normocyte-binding protein required for human erythrocyte invasion by the zoonotic malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2016; 113(26): 7231-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1522469113] [PMID: 27303038]
[76]
Daneshvar C, Davis TME, Cox-Singh J, et al. Clinical and laboratory features of human Plasmodium knowlesi infection. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49(6): 852-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/605439] [PMID: 19635025]
[77]
William T, Jelip J, Menon J, et al. Changing epidemiology of malaria in Sabah, Malaysia: increasing incidence of Plasmodium knowlesi. Malar J 2014; 13(1): 390.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-390] [PMID: 25272973]
[78]
Douglas NM, Anstey NM, Buffet PA, et al. The anaemia of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Malar J 2012; 11(1): 135.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-135] [PMID: 22540175]
[79]
Cox-Singh J, Singh B, Daneshvar C, Planche T, Parker-Williams J, Krishna S. Anti-inflammatory cytokines predominate in acute human Plasmodium knowlesi infections. PLoS One 2011; 6(6): e20541.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020541] [PMID: 21687657]
[80]
Babady NE, Rosenblatt JE, Pritt BS, Sloan LM. Detection of Plasmodium knowlesi by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2009; 81(3): 516-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2009.81.516] [PMID: 19706924]
[81]
Ahmed MA, Cox-Singh J. Plasmodium knowlesi - an emerging pathogen. ISBT Sci Ser 2015; 10 (Suppl. 1): 134-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/voxs.12115] [PMID: 26029250]
[82]
Rabassa MT. Tackling Plasmodium Pk malaria: Landscape of current research in Plasmodium Pk. Available from: https://www. isglobal.org/documents/10179/6506192/Maria+Tusell/2ea7b830-02e8-4388-b7c3-60ea1595ea1b (Accessed on: 22/04/2021).
[83]
Grigg MJ, William T, Menon J, et al. Artesunate-mefloquine versus chloroquine for treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium knowlesi ma-laria in Malaysia (ACT KNOW): an open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2016; 16(2): 180-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00415-6] [PMID: 26603174]
[84]
Grigg MJ, William T, Barber BE, et al. Artemether-lumefantrine versus chloroquine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium knowlesi malaria: An open-label randomized controlled trial can know. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 66(2): 229-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix779] [PMID: 29020373]
[85]
William T, Menon J, Rajahram G, et al. Severe Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in a tertiary care hospital, Sabah, Malaysia. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17(7): 1248-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1707.101017] [PMID: 21762579]
[86]
Singh J, Ray AP, Basu PC, Nair CP. Acquired resistance to proguanil in Plasmodium knowlesi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1952; 46(6): 639-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(52)90023-0] [PMID: 13005681]
[87]
Singh J, Nair CP, Ray AP. Studies on Nuri strain of P. knowlesi. V. Acquired resistance to pyrimethamine. Indian J Malariol 1954; 8(3): 187-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(52)90023-0] [PMID: 13005681]
[88]
van Rooyen CE, Pile GR. Observations on infection by Plasmodium Pk (ape malaria) in the treatment of general paralysis of the insane. BMJ 1935; 2(3901): 662-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.3901.662] [PMID: 20779410]
[89]
Fatih FA, Staines HM, Siner A, et al. Susceptibility of human Plasmodium knowlesi infections to anti-malarials. Malar J 2013; 12(1): 425.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-425] [PMID: 24245918]
[90]
Dutta GP, Singh PP. Blood schizontocidal activity of some antibiotics against Plasmodium knowlesi infection in Assamese monkey. Indian J Med Res 1979; 70: 91-4.
[PMID: 121297]
[91]
Warhurst DC, Robinson BL, Peters W. The blood schizontocidal action of erythromycin against Plasmodium knowlesi infections in Macaca mulatta. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1983; 77(3): 231-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00034983.1983.11811703] [PMID: 6625724]
[92]
Bajpai R, Dutta GP, Vishwakarma RA. Blood schizontocidal activity of a new antimalarial drug, arteether, against Plasmodium knowlesi in rhesus monkeys. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1989; 83(4): 484.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(89)90257-5] [PMID: 2617597]
[93]
Powers KG, Aikawa M, Nugent KM. Plasmodium knowlesi: Morphology and course of infection in rhesus monkeys treated with clindamycin and its N-demethyl-4′-pentyl analog. Exp Parasitol 1976; 40(1): 13-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(76)90058-8] [PMID: 820562]
[94]
Nair CP, Ray AP, Singh J. Studies on Nuri strain of P. knowlesi. II. Therapeutic effect of pyrimethamine, proguanil and quinine. Indian J Malariol 1953; 7(4): 371-6.
[PMID: 13183653]
[95]
Shi YL, Li GF, Zhao JH, Yang JD, Ding DB. Schizontocidal effects of oral artesunate on Plasmodium berghei in mice and P. knowlesi in monkeys. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao 1999; 20(8): 755-8.
[PMID: 10678113]
[96]
Kimani EW, Vulule JM, Kuria IW, Mugisha F. Use of insecticide-treated clothes for personal protection against malaria: A community trial. Malar J 2006; 5(1): 63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-5-63] [PMID: 16872529]
[97]
Chin W, Alpert E, Collins WE, Jeter MH, Contacos PG. Experimental mosquito-transmission of Plasmodium knowlesi to man and monkey. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1968; 17(3): 355-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1968.17.355] [PMID: 4385130]
[98]
Malaria Site Malaria prophylaxis Available from: https://www. malariasite.com/prophylaxis/ (Accessed on: 22/04/2021).
[99]
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/immigrantrefugeehealth/guidelines/domestic/malaria-guidelines-domestic.html(Accessed on: November 25, 2016).
[100]
Lengeler C. Insecticide-treated bednets and curtains for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; (2): CD000363.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000363] [PMID: 10796535]
[101]
Fradin MS, Day JF. Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites. N Engl J Med 2002; 347(1): 13-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011699] [PMID: 12097535]
[102]
Lau YL, Tan LH, Chin LC, Fong MY, Noraishah MA, Rohela M. Plasmodium knowlesi reinfection in human. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17(7): 1314-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1707.101295] [PMID: 21762601]
[103]
Lee KS, Divis PCS, Zakaria SK, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi: reservoir hosts and tracking the emergence in humans and macaques. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7(4): e1002015.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002015] [PMID: 21490952]
[104]
Moyes CL, Shearer FM, Huang Z, et al. Predicting the geographical distributions of the macaque hosts and mosquito vectors of Plasmodi-um knowlesi malaria in forested and non-forested areas. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9(1): 242.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1527-0] [PMID: 27125995]
[105]
Fornace KM, Brock PM, Abidin TR, et al. Environmental risk factors and exposure to the zoonotic malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi across northern Sabah, Malaysia: a population-based cross-sectional survey. Lancet Planet Health 2019; 3(4): e179-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(19)30045-2] [PMID: 31029229]
[106]
Stark DJ, Fornace KM, Brock PM, et al. Long-Tailed Macaque Response to Deforestation in a Plasmodium knowlesi-Endemic Area. EcoHealth 2019; 16(4): 638-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10393-019-01403-9] [PMID: 30927165]
[107]
Rohani A, Fakhriy HA, Suzilah I, et al. Indoor and outdoor residual spraying of a novel formulation of deltamethrin K-Othrine® (Polyzo-ne) for the control of simian malaria in Sabah, Malaysia. PLoS One 2020; 15(5): e0230860.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230860] [PMID: 32413033]
[108]
Thang ND, Erhart A, Speybroeck N, et al. Long-Lasting Insecticidal Hammocks for controlling forest malaria: A community-based trial in a rural area of central Vietnam. PLoS One 2009; 4(10): e7369.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007369] [PMID: 19809502]
[109]
Chiodini P, Hill D, Lalloo D, Walker E, Whitty C, Bannister B. Guidelines for malaria prevention in travellers from the United Kingdom London: Health Protection Agency 2007 Available from: www.hpa.org.uk/infections/topics_az/malaria/guidelines.htm
[110]
McGready R, Simpson JA, Hamilton KA, et al. Safety of the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide (DEET) in pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001; 65(4): 285-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.285] [PMID: 11693870]
[111]
Deans JA, Alderson T, Thomas AW, Mitchell GH, Lennox ES, Cohen S. Rat monoclonal antibodies which inhibit the in vitro multiplica-tion of Plasmodium knowlesi. Clin Exp Immunol 1982; 49(2): 297-309.
[PMID: 6751636]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy