Abstract
Esophageal cancer is one of the most common types of gastrointestinal malignancies that is encountered. It has a global distribution and affects males and females, and is linked to significant morbidity and mortality. The mechanisms underlying pathophysiology are multifactorial and involve the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. This review article describes the immunological and metabolic changes that occur in malignancy of the esophagus.
Keywords: Esophageal cancer, immunology, metabolic changes, pathophysiology, malignancy, stromal cells.
Graphical Abstract
[PMID: 28075104]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40880-019-0427-z] [PMID: 31771653]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soc.2016.10.012] [PMID: 28279469]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.31730] [PMID: 29981155]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.20716] [PMID: 15540228]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00535-015-1078-8] [PMID: 25906289]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1349-7006.2007.00603.x] [PMID: 17784873]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2016.09.006] [PMID: 27793569]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2019.101950] [PMID: 31918022]
[PMID: 31037903]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10753-017-0721-3] [PMID: 29264744]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.26323] [PMID: 30542513]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2013.07.012] [PMID: 23890059]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/onc.2016.34] [PMID: 26923327]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2016.12.011] [PMID: 28359471]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/2326-6066.CIR-15-0046] [PMID: 26081225]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2162402X.2019.1581546] [PMID: 31069143]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.8476] [PMID: 27050369]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.10055] [PMID: 27322149]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000002410] [PMID: 28806299]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.27052] [PMID: 31360303]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000002754] [PMID: 31082908]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00268-009-0070-y] [PMID: 19440651]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2019.01.263] [PMID: 30768984]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oraloncology.2015.04.015] [PMID: 25958829]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0973-1482.183217] [PMID: 30249899]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41374-018-0185-6] [PMID: 30683902]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02183.x] [PMID: 19055699]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M115.708909] [PMID: 26699196]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc1926] [PMID: 16794634]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.29108] [PMID: 31332789]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2019.06.007] [PMID: 31353124]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cbf.3115] [PMID: 26009869]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41590-019-0346-9] [PMID: 30936494]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc3818] [PMID: 25342631]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820459116] [PMID: 30670657]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm976] [PMID: 14702634]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2005.08.016] [PMID: 16199153]
[PMID: 25964580]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2019.01.018] [PMID: 30822683]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/fon-2018-0669] [PMID: 31237146]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.2368] [PMID: 25238263]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13277-015-3426-y] [PMID: 25967454]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2015.290] [PMID: 26284335]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2013.12.005] [PMID: 24413387]
[PMID: 14555512]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2006.01.007] [PMID: 16439202]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1409700111] [PMID: 25422452]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-14-3639] [PMID: 26294209]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mc.22733] [PMID: 28888039]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.168.2.689] [PMID: 11777962]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2006-09-046201] [PMID: 17244679]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-07-6621] [PMID: 18593947]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-2587] [PMID: 20028852]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2011.10.015] [PMID: 22082565]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/or.2017.5426] [PMID: 28184939]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CJI.0b013e3182a802cf] [PMID: 23994890]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc1877] [PMID: 16572188]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-2973] [PMID: 27216177]
[PMID: 17198458]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.21492] [PMID: 30207593]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.sla.0000184211.75970.85] [PMID: 16192817]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2014.10.004] [PMID: 25455641]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2188/jea.JE20120162]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12885-015-1185-1] [PMID: 26031666]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/PL00000707]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.12.015] [PMID: 24374314]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2008.02.012]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0163-7258(98)00028-X] [PMID: 9839771]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1040-8428(01)00179-2] [PMID: 12098606]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/813256] [PMID: 23573417]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01143.2001] [PMID: 11896043]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.1981.241.4.G275] [PMID: 7032321]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bpg.2010.08.008] [PMID: 21126700]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00401.2005] [PMID: 16407590]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.1999.276.6.G1322] [PMID: 10362635]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.01.012]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgg135] [PMID: 12919956]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10103-013-1449-4]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.07898.x] [PMID: 17535221]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2353/ajpath.2008.070522]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01267.2001]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01906.x] [PMID: 15270732]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1751-2980.12511] [PMID: 28749599]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2019.03.072] [PMID: 31082367]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng.3343]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/gast.1999.0029900327] [PMID: 10419913]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/94.6.422] [PMID: 11904314]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124509] [PMID: 32630408]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dmm.033332] [PMID: 30082427]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.6.1602S] [PMID: 17513435]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advms.2018.08.018]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109210] [PMID: 31330440]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.TM118.003343] [PMID: 30355737]
[PMID: 9230217]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176282] [PMID: 32872669]
[PMID: 7111654]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwm051] [PMID: 17420181]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.30178] [PMID: 27163125]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.20616] [PMID: 15455378]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2015-052758] [PMID: 27165994]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2008.10.020] [PMID: 19036500]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.7511] [PMID: 27918784]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2012.03.001] [PMID: 22504051]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2017.08.023] [PMID: 28823862]
[PMID: 3914622]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2015.08.054] [PMID: 26376349]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2015.03.006] [PMID: 25766659]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/18.9.1739] [PMID: 9328169]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-0215(20001101)88:3<342:AID-IJC4>3.0.CO;2-I] [PMID: 11054661]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8751-1_9] [PMID: 30178251]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm.4517] [PMID: 29634682]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-1110]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143603] [PMID: 26641451]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep08820] [PMID: 25743945]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13027-016-0049-x] [PMID: 26788120]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/hel.12504] [PMID: 29938864]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1054] [PMID: 30646096]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djg047] [PMID: 13130116]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2016.0093]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-0202] [PMID: 22499775]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/1.8.685]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6605372]
[PMID: 6992989]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/ajr.181.3.1810785] [PMID: 12933482]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtho.2016.10.016]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005382-200605000-00005] [PMID: 16770230]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.06.011] [PMID: 20601255]