Abstract
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common cardiac arrhythmia known to incite increased thromboembolic and mortality risks, especially among patients not under anticoagulant therapy when indicated. Several routine scores exist to help stratify AF patients, such as the CHAD2DS2-VASc score and upon which physicians are based to decide whether to administer anticoagulant therapy. Being that anticoagulant regimen is a double- edged situation with both benefits and risks, decision-making process demands a definite and reliable, evidence-based set of data to rely on. Blood-based biological elements known as biomarkers are measurable indices that can provide crucial insights concerning not only underlying disease mechanisms but also prognostic and risk stratifying information. As AF is constituted by an overwhelming range of pathophysiological aspects such as inflammation, fibrosis, hypercoagulable states and myocardial damage, identifying and assessing relevant biomarkers will evidently support the clinician’s prognostication efforts. The current reviewpresents studied biomarkers with proven prognostic potential in AF as well as possible enhancement of risk-scores when incorporated to them.
Keywords: Atrial fibrillation, Biomarkers, cardiac arrhythmia, Blood-based biological elements, inflammation, fibrosis, hypercoagulable states and myocardial damage.
[1]
Benjamin, E.J.; Wolf, P.A.; D’Agostino, R.B.; Silbershatz, H.; Kannel, W.B.; Levy, D. Impact of atrial fibrillation on the risk of death: The Framingham heart study. Circulation, 1998, 98(10), 946-952.
[2]
Wolf, P.A.; Abbott, R.D.; Kannel, W.B. Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: The Framingham study. Stroke, 1991, 22(8), 983-988.
[3]
Go, A.S.; Hylek, E.M.; Phillips, K.A.; Chang, Y.; Henault, L.E.; Selby, J.V.; Singer, D.E. Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults: national implications for rhythm management and stroke prevention: The AnTicoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation (ATRIA) Study. JAMA, 2001, 285(18), 2370-2375.
[4]
Kannel, W.B.; Wolf, P.A.; Benjamin, E.J.; Levy, D. Prevalence, incidence, prognosis, and predisposing conditions for atrial fibrillation: population-based estimates. Am. J. Cardiol., 1998, 82(8A), 2N-9N.
[5]
Stroke Risk in Atrial Fibrillation Working Group. Independent predictors of stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a systematic review. Neurology, 2007, 69(6), 546-554.
[6]
Camm, A.J.; Kirchhof, P.; Lip, G.Y.; Schotten, U.; Savelieva, I.; Ernst, S.; Van Gelder, I.C.; Al-Attar, N.; Hindricks, G.; Prendergast, B.; Heidbuchel, H.; Alfieri, O.; Angelini, A.; Atar, D.; Colonna, P.; De Caterina, R.; De Sutter, J.; Goette, A.; Gorenek, B.; Heldal, M.; Hohloser, S.H.; Kolh, P.; Le Heuzey, J.Y.; Ponikowski, P.; Rutten, F.H. Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation: the Task Force for the Management of Atrial Fibrillation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur. Heart J., 2010, 31(19), 2369-2429.
[7]
Camm, A.J.; Lip, G.Y.; De Caterina, R.; Savelieva, I.; Atar, D.; Hohnloser, S.H.; Hindricks, G.; Kirchhof, P. 2012 focused update of the ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation: an update of the 2010 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation--developed with the special contribution of the European Heart Rhythm Association. Europace, 2012, 14(10), 1385-1413.
[8]
Van Staa, T.P.; Setakis, E.; Di Tanna, G.L.; Lane, D.A.; Lip, G.Y. A comparison of risk stratification schemes for stroke in 79,884 atrial fibrillation patients in general practice. J. Thromb. Haemost., 2011, 9(1), 39-48.
[9]
Fang, M.C.; Go, A.S.; Chang, Y.; Borowsky, L.; Pomernacki, N.K.; Singer, D.E. Comparison of risk stratification schemes to predict thromboembolism in people with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2008, 51(8), 810-815.
[10]
Hijazi, Z.; Oldgren, J.; Andersson, U.; Connolly, S.J.; Ezekowitz, M.D.; Hohnloser, S.H.; Reilly, P.A.; Vinereanu, D.; Siegbahn, A.; Yusuf, S.; Wallentin, L. Cardiac biomarkers are associated with an increased risk of stroke and death in patients with atrial fibrillation: A Randomized Evaluation of Long-term Anticoagulation Therapy (RE-LY) substudy. Circulation, 2012, 125(13), 1605-1616.
[11]
Hijazi, Z.; Oldgren, J.; Siegbahn, A.; Granger, C.B.; Wallentin, L. Biomarkers in atrial fibrillation: A clinical review. Eur. Heart J., 2013, 34(20), 1475-1480.
[12]
Siasos, G.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Tousoulis, D. Editorial: Inflammation and atherosclerosis: The role of novel biomarkers (Part-I). Curr. Med. Chem., 2015, 22(22), 2616-2618.
[13]
Tousoulis, D.; Oikonomou, E.; Siasos, G.; Chrysohoou, C.; Charakida, M.; Trikas, A.; Siasou, Z.; Limperi, M.; Papadimitriou, E.D.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Stefanadis, C. Predictive value of biomarkers in patients with heart failure. Curr. Med. Chem., 2012, 19(16), 2534-2547.
[14]
Kampoli, A.M.; Tousoulis, D.; Antoniades, C.; Siasos, G.; Stefanadis, C. Biomarkers of premature atherosclerosis. Trends Mol. Med., 2009, 15(7), 323-332.
[15]
Tousoulis, D.; Androulakis, E.; Papageorgiou, N.; Siasos, G.; Latsios, G.; Charakida, M.; Kampoli, A.M.; Oikonomou, E.; Stefanadis, C. Novel biomarkers assessing endothelial dysfunction: Role of microRNAs. Curr. Top. Med. Chem., 2013, 13(13), 1518-1526.
[16]
Tousoulis, D.; Siasos, G.; Maniatis, K.; Oikonomou, E.; Kioufis, S.; Zaromitidou, M.; Paraskevopoulos, T.; Michalea, S.; Kollia, C.; Miliou, A.; Kokkou, E.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Stefanadis, C. Serum osteoprotegerin and osteopontin levels are associated With arterial stiffness and the presence and severity of coronary artery disease. Int. J. Cardiol., 2013, 167(5), 1924-1928.
[17]
Papageorgiou, N.; Tousoulis, D.; Androulakis, E.; Siasos, G.; Briasoulis, A.; Vogiatzi, G.; Kampoli, A.M.; Tsiamis, E.; Tentolouris, C.; Stefanadis, C. The role of microRNAs in cardiovascular disease. Curr. Med. Chem., 2012, 19(16), 2605-2610.
[18]
Tousoulis, D.; Hatzis, G.; Papageorgiou, N.; Androulakis, E.; Bouras, G.; Giolis, A.; Bakogiannis, C.; Siasos, G.; Latsios, G.; Antoniades, C.; Stefanadis, C. Assessment of acute coronary syndromes: Focus on novel biomarkers. Curr. Med. Chem., 2012, 19(16), 2572-2587.
[19]
Tousoulis, D.; Siasos, G.; Maniatis, K.; Oikonomou, E.; Vlasis, K.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Stefanadis, C. Novel biomarkers assessing the calcium deposition in coronary artery disease. Curr. Med. Chem., 2012, 19(6), 901-920.
[20]
Tousoulis, D.; Androulakis, E.; Papageorgiou, N.; Briasoulis, A.; Siasos, G.; Antoniades, C.; Stefanadis, C. From atherosclerosis to acute coronary syndromes: the role of soluble CD40 ligand. Trends Cardiovasc. Med., 2010, 20(5), 153-164.
[21]
López-Cuenca, A.; Marín, F.; Roldán, V.; González-Conejero, R.; Hernández-Romero, D.; Valdés, M.; Lip, G.Y. Genetic polymorphisms and atrial fibrillation: Insights into the prothrombotic state and thromboembolic risk. Ann. Med., 2010, 42(8), 562-575.
[22]
Carter, A.M.; Catto, A.J.; Grant, P.J. Association of the alpha-fibrinogen Thr312Ala polymorphism with poststroke mortality in subjects with atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 1999, 99(18), 2423-2426.
[23]
Li, C.; Ding, X.; Zhang, J.; Zhou, C.; Chen, Y.; Rao, L. Does the E/e′ index predict the maintenance of sinus rhythm after catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation? Echocardiography, 2010, 27, 630-636.
[24]
Shaikh, A.Y.; Maan, A.; Khan, U.A.; Aurigemma, G.P.; Hill, J.C.; Kane, J.L.; Tighe, D.A.; Mick, E.; McManus, D.D. Speckle echocardiographic left atrial strain and stiffness index as predictors of maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion for atrial fibrillation: a prospective study. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound, 2012, 10, 48.
[25]
Vergara, G.R.; Marrouche, N.F. Tailored management of atrial fibrillation using a LGE-MRI based model: From the clinic to the electrophysiology laboratory. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol., 2011, 22, 481-487.
[26]
Marrouche, N.F.; Wilber, D.; Hindricks, G.; Jais, P.; Akoum, N.; Marchlinski, F.; Kholmovski, E.; Burgon, N.; Hu, N.; Mont, L.; Deneke, T.; Duytschaever, M.; Neumann, T.; Mansour, M.; Mahnkopf, C.; Herweg, B.; Daoud, E.; Wissner, E.; Bansmann, P.; Brachmann, J. Association of atrial tissue fibrosis identified by delayed enhancement MRI and atrial fibrillation catheter ablation: The DECAAF study. JAMA, 2014, 311, 498.
[27]
Jadidi, A.S.; Cochet, H.; Shah, A.J.; Kim, S.J.; Duncan, E.; Miyazaki, S.; Sermesant, M.; Lehrmann, H.; Lederlin, M.; Linton, N.; Forclaz, A.; Nault, I.; Rivard, L.; Wright, M.; Liu, X.; Scherr, D.; Wilton, S.B.; Roten, L.; Pascale, P.; Derval, N.; Sacher, F.; Knecht, S.; Keyl, C.; Hocini, M.; Montaudon, M.; Laurent, F.; Haïssaguerre, M.; Jaïs, P. Inverse relationship between fractionated electrograms and atrial fibrosis in persistent atrial fibrillation: combined magnetic resonance imaging and high-density mapping. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2013, 62(9), 802-812.
[28]
Spragg, D.D.; Khurram, I.; Zimmerman, S.L.; Yarmohammadi, H.; Barcelon, B.; Needleman, M.; Edwards, D.; Marine, J.E.; Calkins, H.; Nazarian, S. Initial experience with magnetic resonance imaging of atrial scar and co-registration with electroanatomic voltage mapping during atrial fibrillation: success and limitations. Heart Rhythm, 2012, 9(12), 2003-2009.
[29]
Zethelius, B.; Johnston, N.; Venge, P. Troponin I as a predictor of coronary heart disease and mortality in 70-year-old men: a community-based cohort study. Circulation, 2006, 113(8), 1071-1078.
[30]
Omland, T.; de Lemos, J.A.; Sabatine, M.S.; Christophi, C.A.; Rice, M.M.; Jablonski, K.A.; Tjora, S.; Domanski, M.J.; Gersh, B.J.; Rouleau, J.L.; Pfeffer, M.A.; Braunwald, E. A sensitive cardiac troponin T assay in stable coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 2009, 361(26), 2538-2547.
[31]
Horwich, T.B.; Patel, J.; MacLellan, W.R.; Fonarow, G.C. Cardiac troponin I is associated with impaired hemodynamics, progressive left ventricular dysfunction, and increased mortality rates in advanced heart failure. Circulation, 2003, 108(7), 833-838.
[32]
van den Bos, E.J.; Constantinescu, A.A.; van Domburg, R.T.; Akin, S.; Jordaens, L.J.; Kofflard, M.J. Minor elevations in troponin I are associated with mortality and adverse cardiac events in patients with atrial fibrillation. Eur. Heart J., 2011, 32(5), 611-617.
[33]
Roldán, V.; Marín, F.; Díaz, J.; Gallego, P.; Jover, E.; Romera, M.; Manzano-Fernández, S.; Casas, T.; Valdés, M.; Vicente, V.; Lip, G.Y. High sensitivity cardiac troponin T and interleukin-6 predict adverse cardiovascular events and mortality in anticoagulated patients with atrial fibrillation. J. Thromb. Haemost., 2012, 10(8), 1500-1507.
[34]
Hijazi, Z.; Siegbahn, A.; Andersson, U.; Lindahl, B.; Granger, C.B.; Alexander, J.H.; Atar, D.; Gersh, B.J.; Hanna, M.; Harjola, V.P.; Horowitz, J.; Husted, S.; Hylek, E.M.; Lopes, R.D.; McMurray, J.J.; Wallentin, L. Comparison of cardiac troponins I and T measured with high-sensitivity methods for evaluation of prognosis in atrial fibrillation: an ARISTOTLE substudy. Clin. Chem., 2015, 61(2), 368-378.
[35]
Daniels, L.B.; Maisel, A.S. Natriuretic peptides. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2007, 50(25), 2357-2368.
[36]
Johnston, N.; Jernberg, T.; Lindahl, B.; Lindbäck, J.; Stridsberg, M.; Larsson, A.; Venge, P.; Wallentin, L. Biochemical indicators of cardiac and renal function in a healthy elderly population. Clin. Biochem., 2004, 37(3), 210-216.
[37]
Redfield, M.M.; Rodeheffer, R.J.; Jacobsen, S.J.; Mahoney, D.W.; Bailey, K.R.; Burnett, J.C., Jr Plasma brain natriuretic peptide concentration: impact of age and gender. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2002, 40(5), 976-982.
[38]
Patton, K.K.; Ellinor, P.T.; Heckbert, S.R.; Christenson, R.H.; DeFilippi, C.; Gottdiener, J.S.; Kronmal, R.A. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide is a major predictor of the development of atrial fibrillation: The cardiovascular health study. Circulation, 2009, 120(18), 1768-1774.
[39]
Hijazi, Z.; Wallentin, L.; Siegbahn, A.; Andersson, U.; Christersson, C.; Ezekowitz, J.; Gersh, B.J.; Hanna, M.; Hohnloser, S.; Horowitz, J.; Huber, K.; Hylek, E.M.; Lopes, R.D.; McMurray, J.J.; Granger, C.B. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide for risk assessment in patients with atrial fibrillation: insights from the ARISTOTLE Trial (Apixaban for the Prevention of Stroke in Subjects with Atrial Fibrillation). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2013, 61(22), 2274-2284.
[40]
Suissa, L.; Bresch, S.; Lachaud, S. Mahagne, MH Brain natriuretic peptide: A relevant marker to rule out delayed atrial fibrillation in stroke patient. J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis., 2012, 22(7), e103-e110.
[41]
Aviles, R.J.; Martin, D.O.; Apperson-Hansen, C.; Houghtaling, P.L.; Rautaharju, P.; Kronmal, R.A.; Tracy, R.P.; Van Wagoner, D.R.; Psaty, B.M.; Lauer, M.S.; Chung, M.K. Inflammation as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 2003, 108(24), 3006-3010.
[42]
Bruins, P.; te Velthuis, H.; Yazdanbakhsh, A.P.; Jansen, P.G.; van Hardevelt, F.W.; de Beaumont, E.M.; Wildevuur, C.R.; Eijsman, L.; Trouwborst, A.; Hack, C.E. Activation of the complement system during and after cardiopulmonary bypass surgery: Postsurgery activation involves C-reactive protein and is associated with postoperative arrhythmia. Circulation, 1997, 96(10), 3542-3548.
[43]
Chung, M.K.; Martin, D.O.; Sprecher, D.; Wazni, O.; Kanderian, A.; Carnes, C.A.; Bauer, J.A.; Tchou, P.J.; Niebauer, M.J.; Natale, A.; Van Wagoner, D.R. C-reactive protein elevation in patients with atrial arrhythmias: inflammatory mechanisms and persistence of atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 2001, 104(24), 2886-2891.
[44]
Frustaci, A.; Caldarulo, M.; Buffon, A.; Bellocci, F.; Fenici, R.; Melina, D. Cardiac biopsy in patients with “primary” atrial fibrillation. Histologic evidence of occult myocardial diseases. Chest, 1991, 100(2), 303-306.
[45]
Aviles, R.J.; Martin, D.O.; Apperson-Hansen, C.; Houghtaling, P.L.; Rautaharju, P.; Kronmal, R.A.; Tracy, R.P.; Van Wagoner, D.R.; Psaty, B.M.; Lauer, M.S.; Chung, M.K. Inflammation as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 2003, 108(24), 3006-3010.
[46]
Lip, G.Y.; Patel, J.V.; Hughes, E.; Hart, R.G. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein and soluble CD40 ligand as indices of inflammation and platelet activation in 880 patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: relationship to stroke risk factors, stroke risk stratification schema, and prognosis. Stroke, 2007, 38(4), 1229-1237.
[47]
Nyrnes, A.; Njølstad, I.; Mathiesen, E.B.; Wilsgaard, T.; Hansen, J.B.; Skjelbakken, T.; Jørgensen, L.; Løchen, M.L. Inflammatory biomarkers as risk factors for future atrial fibrillation. An eleven-year follow-up of 6315 men and women: The tromsø study. Gend. Med., 2012, 9(6), 536-547.e2.
[48]
Siasos, G.; Lazaros, G.; Oikonomou, E.; Zografos, T.; Antonopoulos, A.; Papaioannou, S.; Latsios, G.; Vavuranakis, M.; Stefanadis, C.; Tousoulis, D. The prognostic role of C-reactive protein after myocardial infarction in patients with normal or mildly impaired left ventricle systolic function. Int. J. Cardiol., 2016, 220, 173-175.
[49]
Conway, D.S.; Buggins, P.; Hughes, E.; Lip, G.Y. Prognostic significance of raised plasma levels of interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein in atrial fibrillation. Am. Heart J., 2004, 148(3), 462-466.
[50]
Hermida, J.; Lopez, F.L.; Montes, R.; Matsushita, K.; Astor, B.C.; Alonso, A. Usefulness of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein to predict mortality in patients with atrial fibrillation (from the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities [ARIC] Study). Am. J. Cardiol., 2012, 109(1), 95-99.
[51]
Gibson, P.H.; Cuthbertson, B.H.; Croal, B.L.; Rae, D.; El-Shafei, H.; Gibson, G.; Jeffrey, R.R.; Buchan, K.G.; Hillis, G.S. Usefulness of neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio as predictor of new-onset atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass grafting. Am. J. Cardiol., 2010, 105(2), 186-191.
[52]
Siasos, G. Editorial: Novel inflammatory biomarkers in cardiovascular disease: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic targets (Part-II). Curr. Med. Chem., 2015, 22(23), 2713-2715.
[53]
Vavuranakis, M.; Kariori, M.; Vrachatis, D.; Siasos, G.; Kalogeras, K.; Bei, E.; Moldovan, C.; Lavda, M.; Aznaouridis, K.; Oikonomou, E.; Tousoulis, D. Novel inflammatory indices in aortic disease. Curr. Med. Chem., 2015, 22(23), 2762-2772.
[54]
Papapanagiotou, A.; Siasos, G.; Kassi, E.; Gargalionis, A.N.; Papavassiliou, A.G. Novel inflammatory markers in hyperlipidemia: Clinical implications. Curr. Med. Chem., 2015, 22(23), 2727-2743.
[55]
Tsigkou, V.; Siasos, G.; Oikonomou, E.; Zaromitidou, M.; Latsios, G.; Vavuranakis, M.; Deftereos, S.; Cleman, M.W.; Kokkou, E.; Limberi, M.; Dimitropoulos, S.; Zografos, T.; Marinaki, S.; Stefanadis, C.; Tousoulis, D. Novel inflammatory biomarkers in cardiovascular therapeutics. Curr. Med. Chem., 2015, 22(23), 2773-2785.
[56]
Marinaki, S.; Skalioti, C.; Siasos, G.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Tousoulis, D.; Boletis, J.N. The importance of novel inflammatory biomarkers in renal disease. Curr. Med. Chem., 2015, 22(23), 2786-2800.
[57]
Siasos, G.; Tsigkou, V.; Oikonomou, E.; Zaromitidou, M.; Tsalamandris, S.; Mourouzis, K.; Vavuranakis, M.; Anastasiou, M.; Vlasis, K.; Limperi, M.; Gennimata, V.; Boletis, J.N.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Tousoulis, D. Circulating biomarkers determining inflammation in atherosclerosis progression. Curr. Med. Chem., 2015, 22(22), 2619-2635.
[58]
Tousoulis, D.; Zisimos, K.; Antoniades, C.; Stefanadi, E.; Siasos, G.; Tsioufis, C.; Papageorgiou, N.; Vavouranakis, E.; Vlachopoulos, C.; Stefanadis, C. Relation of atrial fibrillation to glomerular filtration rate. Am. J. Cardiol., 2008, 102(8), 1056-1059.
[59]
Iguchi, Y.; Kimura, K.; Kobayashi, K.; Aoki, J.; Terasawa, Y.; Sakai, K.; Uemura, J.; Shibazaki, K. Relation of atrial fibrillation to glomerular filtration rate. Am. J. Cardiol., 2008, 102(8), 1056-1059.
[60]
Siasos, G.; Tousoulis, D.; Michalea, S.; Oikonomou, E.; Vavuranakis, M.; Athanasiou, D.; Tourikis, P.; Gouliopoulos, N.; Miliou, A.; Mourouzis, K.; Limperi, M.; Mazaris, S.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Stefanadis, C. Novel biomarkers assessing renal function in heart failure: relation to inflammatory status and cardiac remodelling. Curr. Med. Chem., 2014, 21(34), 3976-3983.
[61]
Tousoulis, D.; Michalea, S.; Siasos, G.; Oikonomou, E.; Athanasiou, D.; Tourikis, P.; Kokkou, E.; Mazaris, S.; Konsola, T.; Papageorgiou, N.; Stefanadis, C. Cystatin-C serum levels and vascular function in heart failure. Int. J. Cardiol., 2014, 173(3), 542-544.
[62]
Siasos, G.; Tousoulis, D.; Michalea, S.; Oikonomou, E.; Kolia, C.; Kioufis, S.; Synetos, A.; Vlasis, K.; Papavassiliou, A.G.; Stefanadis, C. Biomarkers determining cardiovascular risk in patients with kidney disease. Curr. Med. Chem., 2012, 19(16), 2555-2571.
[63]
Go, A.S.; Fang, M.C.; Udaltsova, N.; Chang, Y.; Pomernacki, N.K.; Borowsky, L.; Singer, D.E. Impact of proteinuria and glomerular filtration rate on risk of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: the anticoagulation and risk factors in atrial fibrillation (ATRIA) study. Circulation, 2009, 119(10), 1363-1369.
[64]
Roldán, V.; Marín, F.; Fernández, H.; Manzano-Fernández, S.; Gallego, P.; Valdés, M.; Vicente, V.; Lip, G.Y. Renal impairment in a “real-life” cohort of anticoagulated patients with atrial fibrillation (implications for thromboembolism and bleeding). Am. J. Cardiol., 2013, 111(8), 1159-1164.
[65]
Hohnloser, S.H.; Hijazi, Z.; Thomas, L.; Alexander, J.H.; Amerena, J.; Hanna, M.; Keltai, M.; Lanas, F.; Lopes, R.D.; Lopez-Sendon, J.; Granger, C.B.; Wallentin, L. Efficacy of apixaban when compared with warfarin in relation to renal function in patients with atrial fibrillation: insights from the ARISTOTLE trial. Eur. Heart J., 2012, 33(22), 2821-2830.
[66]
Conway, D.S.; Pearce, L.A.; Chin, B.S.; Hart, R.G.; Lip, G.Y. Plasma von Willebrand factor and soluble p-selectin as indices of endothelial damage and platelet activation in 1321 patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: Relationship to stroke risk factors. Circulation, 2002, 106(15), 1962-1967.
[67]
Lip, G.Y.; Lane, D.; Van Walraven, C.; Hart, R.G. Additive role of plasma von Willebrand factor levels to clinical factors for risk stratification of patients with atrial fibrillation. Stroke, 2006, 37(9), 2294-2300.
[68]
Sakurai, K.; Hirai, T.; Nakagawa, K.; Kameyama, T.; Nozawa, T.; Asanoi, H.; Inoue, H. Left atrial appendage function and abnormal hypercoagulability in patients with atrial flutter. Chest, 2003, 124(5), 1670-1674.
[69]
Vene, N.; Mavri, A.; Kosmelj, K.; Stegnar, M. High D-dimer levels predict cardiovascular events in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation during oral anticoagulant therapy. Thromb. Haemost., 2003, 90(6), 1163-1172.
[70]
Nozawa, T.; Inoue, H.; Hirai, T.; Iwasa, A.; Okumura, K.; Lee, J.D.; Shimizu, A.; Hayano, M.; Yano, K. D-dimer level influences thromboembolic events in patients with atrial fibrillation. Int. J. Cardiol., 2006, 109(1), 59-65.
[71]
Chirinos, J.A.; Castrellon, A.; Zambrano, J.P.; Jimenez, J.J.; Jy, W.; Horstman, L.L.; Willens, H.J.; Castellanos, A.; Myerburg, R.J.; Ahn, Y.S. Digoxin use is associated with increased platelet and endothelial cell activation in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 2005, 2(5), 525-529.
Related Journals
Current Pharmaceutical Design
Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry
Current Respiratory Medicine Reviews
Infectious Disorders - Drug Targets
Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders - Drug Targets
Anti-Infective Agents
Coronaviruses
Recent Advances in Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery
Current Probiotics
Article Metrics
41
10
1