Abstract
Atherosclerosis is characterized by chronic inflammation of the arterial wall. However, the exact mechanism underlying atherosclerosis-related inflammation has not been fully elucidated. To gain insight into the mechanisms underlying the inflammatory process that leads to atherosclerosis, there is need to identify novel molecular markers. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-protein-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs) have gained prominence in recent years. LncRNAs/circRNAs act as competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) that bind to miRNAs via microRNA response elements (MREs), thereby inhibiting the silencing of miRNA target mRNAs. Inflammatory mediators and inflammatory signaling pathways are closely regulated by ceRNA regulatory networks in atherosclerosis. In this review, we discuss the role of LncRNA/CircRNA-miRNA-mRNA axis in atherosclerotic inflammation and how it can be targeted for early clinical detection and treatment.
Graphical Abstract
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09588-x] [PMID: 30996248]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-084582] [PMID: 17693580]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2018.2769] [PMID: 30208407]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2016.03.004] [PMID: 26978582]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78941-8] [PMID: 33319833]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/1719279] [PMID: 33029103]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41569-019-0169-2] [PMID: 30846875]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1707914] [PMID: 28845751]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7194] [PMID: 34390063]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1112014] [PMID: 16141072]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-060308-103103] [PMID: 20533884]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1261/rna.035675.112] [PMID: 23019594]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202009045] [PMID: 33464299]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2014.03.045] [PMID: 24793693]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41580-020-00315-9] [PMID: 33353982]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41576-019-0158-7] [PMID: 31395983]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41580-020-0243-y] [PMID: 32366901]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2011.07.014] [PMID: 21802130]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40169-020-0256-3] [PMID: 32009226]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yjmcc.2019.03.012] [PMID: 30880251]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306301] [PMID: 26892962]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.01997] [PMID: 24566083]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2010.07.016] [PMID: 20678595]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jpen.1451] [PMID: 30288759]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11010-021-04061-0] [PMID: 33492610]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2895545] [PMID: 8302046]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.114.303422] [PMID: 24876354]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2018.00006] [PMID: 29459900]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2019.02.004] [PMID: 30826122]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.03.016] [PMID: 22430140]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2016.145] [PMID: 27253412]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.118.12476] [PMID: 30905197]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1500640] [PMID: 26297762]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1302021] [PMID: 24272999]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2021.650374] [PMID: 34124191]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000001124] [PMID: 34369900]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.07.004] [PMID: 23859953]
[PMID: 3279259]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2013.09.019] [PMID: 24140662]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/iub.2419] [PMID: 33249762]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11239-021-02606-0] [PMID: 34797473]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2004.04.012] [PMID: 15306170]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41419-021-04253-y] [PMID: 34650036]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvab198] [PMID: 34264338]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40659-021-00335-5] [PMID: 33757583]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm9051328] [PMID: 32370294]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00459.2005] [PMID: 16469861]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13578-019-0371-2] [PMID: 31921409]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M109.099630] [PMID: 20164172]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4873] [PMID: 33576448]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10557-022-07316-0]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/BSR20193267] [PMID: 31894855]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12872-021-01998-4] [PMID: 33932991]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/107999004323142187] [PMID: 15212706]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10456-008-9093-5] [PMID: 18264787]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11010-010-0572-9] [PMID: 20714791]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11010-020-03921-5] [PMID: 32990894]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2020.116836] [PMID: 32344218]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2017.6401] [PMID: 28350133]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03392-y] [PMID: 35523945]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00395-017-0659-5] [PMID: 29101484]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.115.306397] [PMID: 26564821]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI40973] [PMID: 20551517]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2019.04.042] [PMID: 31054453]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db16-1405] [PMID: 28487436]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11010-020-03770-2] [PMID: 32524321]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvz085] [PMID: 30924864]
[PMID: 33015807]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.09.001] [PMID: 22999810]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.ircmb.2017.07.007] [PMID: 29305014]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/8859677] [PMID: 35186169]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.13790] [PMID: 30079603]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2022.12806] [PMID: 35904173]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.14.1.649] [PMID: 8717528]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep42498] [PMID: 28195197]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1582-4934.2007.00011.x] [PMID: 17367503]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123685]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.02.109] [PMID: 32113679]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-98916-7] [PMID: 34608195]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coph.2015.05.017] [PMID: 26093105]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000000889] [PMID: 32833899]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.12825] [PMID: 26992033]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkl014] [PMID: 16500892]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4985] [PMID: 34165154]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yexcr.2021.112519] [PMID: 33636159]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000001127] [PMID: 34882112]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.20110] [PMID: 15305292]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109781] [PMID: 32947021]
[PMID: 31723944]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000001063] [PMID: 34554678]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmcb/mjz040] [PMID: 31070748]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12872-021-02012-7] [PMID: 33892646]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2013.05.005] [PMID: 23911403]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2019.05.012] [PMID: 31108165]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.175.11.7623] [PMID: 16301672]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00227-x] [PMID: 28779175]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000001104] [PMID: 34269702]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2022.2027062] [PMID: 35081862]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11010-020-04035-8] [PMID: 33439448]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cpr.12563] [PMID: 30525268]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jpi.12449] [PMID: 29024030]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.12.139] [PMID: 30591217]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2021.1989260] [PMID: 34637670]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ni.1831] [PMID: 20023662]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000000964] [PMID: 33298736]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/ceji.2021.112521] [PMID: 35600155]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.04.143] [PMID: 31030940]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/CH-211375] [PMID: 35570481]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154385] [PMID: 35987015]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.173781] [PMID: 19164812]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2018.06.017] [PMID: 30314869]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep36790] [PMID: 27845432]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000509811] [PMID: 33022677]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029015] [PMID: 30586743]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42255-019-0102-3] [PMID: 31572976]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2006.09.002] [PMID: 17056295]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(19)30043-3] [PMID: 31171272]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000000974] [PMID: 33818551]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/17322693.1085463]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.28027] [PMID: 30633345]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/8245810] [PMID: 31949884]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/6967396] [PMID: 27594973]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2021.08.031] [PMID: 34627697]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/EP085567] [PMID: 26969796]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22136995] [PMID: 34209703]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01084] [PMID: 31178859]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2019.10.034] [PMID: 31730809]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hsz-2017-0215] [PMID: 29252185]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2012.11.020] [PMID: 23273713]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yexcr.2018.05.039] [PMID: 29859752]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CS20191241] [PMID: 32857129]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/dna.2019.4865] [PMID: 31804889]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12872-020-01800-x] [PMID: 33526034]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.10.016] [PMID: 25463094]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.06.113] [PMID: 31300197]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.00306] [PMID: 31019462]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41580-020-0232-1] [PMID: 32251387]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.00553] [PMID: 32296442]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1253/circj.CJ-16-0924] [PMID: 27725526]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.121.316854] [PMID: 34758632]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41419-019-1409-4] [PMID: 30755588]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.01.026] [PMID: 20381282]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cbin.11105] [PMID: 30672051]
[PMID: 31646601]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000001061] [PMID: 34554676]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.27317] [PMID: 30187491]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10787-017-0309-4] [PMID: 28083748]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10753-019-01094-y] [PMID: 31748847]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000001118] [PMID: 34321402]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107993] [PMID: 34330059]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2022.155912] [PMID: 35598525]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2017.11.017] [PMID: 29172088]
[PMID: 29441906]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11010-020-03962-w] [PMID: 33128668]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcb.26819] [PMID: 29663503]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12272-021-01360-4] [PMID: 34743301]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s12276-019-0330-3] [PMID: 31735914]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306361] [PMID: 26892967]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.119.312434] [PMID: 30786740]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2006.09.007] [PMID: 17055513]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvy022] [PMID: 29385543]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2019.10249] [PMID: 31115530]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.17.3.445] [PMID: 9102162]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carpath.2017.11.004] [PMID: 29268138]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M502149200] [PMID: 15961397]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M111.258053] [PMID: 22045807]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000000982] [PMID: 33818550]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0094] [PMID: 24493742]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOL.0000000000000219] [PMID: 26218417]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000001076] [PMID: 34516453]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.01.036] [PMID: 19159614]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1700561114] [PMID: 28716920]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.16734] [PMID: 34169652]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010340] [PMID: 35008765]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41522-016-0009-7] [PMID: 28649401]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41368-019-0054-1] [PMID: 31257363]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0300060521996564] [PMID: 33769113]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/atm-21-6402] [PMID: 35071470]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.omtn.2020.01.032] [PMID: 32146419]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkz141] [PMID: 30820544]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.118.311059] [PMID: 29724817]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-9726.2010.00661.x] [PMID: 21108734]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s11671-021-03608-w] [PMID: 34807315]
[PMID: 32271446]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cei.13634] [PMID: 34109619]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.08.016] [PMID: 28822856]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15384101.2020.1807094] [PMID: 32840181]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/8392313] [PMID: 35615580]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehx165] [PMID: 28430919]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.06.866] [PMID: 30015300]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpt.13060] [PMID: 31703157]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-07611-z] [PMID: 28790415]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.27384] [PMID: 30341894]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/atm-19-4728] [PMID: 32647666]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcla.24202] [PMID: 34997773]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1422.062] [PMID: 17894024]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12031-019-01384-y] [PMID: 31342266]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14656566.6.7.1191] [PMID: 15957972]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/liv.13308] [PMID: 27860156]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/humc.2018.141] [PMID: 30284929]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox11071408] [PMID: 35883899]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jpi.12414] [PMID: 28398673]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.111017] [PMID: 33338751]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11373-005-0973-z] [PMID: 15917998]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.09.047] [PMID: 28970012]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/JLB.3MA0320-327RRR] [PMID: 32337768]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(22)60186-9] [PMID: 36031232]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.924473] [PMID: 36120366]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08923973.2022.2093740] [PMID: 35736860]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10142-019-00705-z] [PMID: 31392586]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1261/rna.1460509] [PMID: 19218553]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/pdb.top093104] [PMID: 27574194]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12943-019-1046-7] [PMID: 31324186]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/aging.101645] [PMID: 30510148]