Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Neuropharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-159X
ISSN (Online): 1875-6190

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Effects of Antidepressants on Sleep in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: An Overview of Reviews

Author(s): Andreas S. Lappas, Zoi A. Polyzopoulou, Nikos Christodoulou, Vasilios-Panteleimon Bozikas and Myrto T. Samara*

Volume 22, Issue 4, 2024

Published on: 15 August, 2023

Page: [749 - 805] Pages: 57

DOI: 10.2174/1570159X21666230801144328

Price: $65

conference banner
Abstract

Antidepressants are a commonly used, easily accessible, and overall safe treatment option for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The present review aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of antidepressants in treating sleep disturbances in patients with PTSD. PubMed and the Cochrane Library were searched (July 2022) for systematic reviews and meta-analyses on the treatment of PTSD. Moreover, PubMed and ClinicalTrials.gov were searched for individual trials investigating the antidepressant treatment of PTSD (up to September 2022), and reference lists of all possibly relevant identified studies were screened. Sleep-related outcomes, i.e., total sleep time, sleep quality, dreams/ nightmares, insomnia, and somnolence, were extracted independently by at least two reviewers. Metaanalytic evaluations were performed wherever possible. 39 randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were identified; data from pooled analyses, reviews, and observational studies were used for antidepressants with a weak evidence base or when their findings were deemed important. Overall, scarce data exist on the effects of antidepressants on sleep outcomes among patients with PTSD. Some evidence may support the use of amitriptyline, nefazodone, paroxetine, and sertraline for improving sleep in patients with PTSD. Τhere was a meta-analytical trend indicating improvement of nightmares with fluoxetine, less insomnia with amitriptyline and more with brofaromine, as well as more somnolence with paroxetine vs. placebo, respectively. However, data from more than 1 RCT with a considerable number of patients were only available for paroxetine. Evidence is insufficient to draw safe conclusions. More and better-designed RCTs, with consistent reporting of sleep-related outcomes, are needed.

« Previous
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Goldstein, R.B.; Smith, S.M.; Chou, S.P.; Saha, T.D.; Jung, J.; Zhang, H.; Pickering, R.P.; Ruan, W.J.; Huang, B.; Grant, B.F. The epidemiology of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol., 2016, 51(8), 1137-1148.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1208-5] [PMID: 27106853]
[2]
Murthy, R.S. Conflict situations and mental health care in developing countries. In: Disasters: mental health context and responses 1st ed; Christodoulou, G.N.; Mezzich, J.E.; Christodoulou, N.G.; Lecic-Tosevski, D., Eds.; Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Newcastle upon Tyne, England, 2016; pp. 151-172.
[3]
de Jong, J.T.V.M.; Komproe, I.H.; Van Ommeren, M.; El Masri, M.; Araya, M.; Khaled, N.; van De Put, W.; Somasundaram, D. Lifetime events and posttraumatic stress disorder in 4 postconflict settings. JAMA, 2001, 286(5), 555-562.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.286.5.555] [PMID: 11476657]
[4]
Kessler, R.C.; Sonnega, A.; Bromet, E.; Hughes, M.; Nelson, C.B. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1995, 52(12), 1048-1060.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012] [PMID: 7492257]
[5]
Kessler, R.C.; Chiu, W.T.; Demler, O.; Walters, E.E.; Walters, E.E. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2005, 62(6), 617-627.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617] [PMID: 15939839]
[6]
Ozer, E.J.; Best, S.R.; Lipsey, T.L.; Weiss, D.S. Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull., 2003, 129(1), 52-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52] [PMID: 12555794]
[7]
Solomon, S.D.; Davidson, J.R. Trauma: prevalence, impairment, service use, and cost. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1997, 58(9)(Suppl. 9), 5-11.
[PMID: 9329445]
[8]
McFARLANE. A.C. The long-term costs of traumatic stress: intertwined physical and psychological consequences. World Psychiatry, 2010, 9(1), 3-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00254.x] [PMID: 20148146]
[9]
Qi, W.; Gevonden, M.; Shalev, A. Prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder after trauma: current evidence and future directions. Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 2016, 18(2), 20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0655-0] [PMID: 26800995]
[10]
Milanak, M.E.; Zuromski, K.L.; Cero, I.; Wilkerson, A.K.; Resnick, H.S.; Kilpatrick, D.G. Traumatic event exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and sleep disturbances in a national sample of U.S. adults. J. Trauma. Stress, 2019, 32(1), 14-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jts.22360] [PMID: 30702778]
[11]
Maguire, D.G.; Ruddock, M.W.; Milanak, M.E.; Moore, T.; Cobice, D.; Armour, C. Sleep, a governor of morbidity in PTSD: a systematic review of biological markers in PTSD-related sleep disturbances. Nat. Sci. Sleep, 2020, 12, 545-562.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S260734] [PMID: 32801980]
[12]
Cox, R.C.; Tuck, B.M.; Olatunji, B.O. Sleep disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder: epiphenomenon or causal factor? Curr. Psychiatry Rep., 2017, 19(4), 22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0773-y] [PMID: 28321643]
[13]
Krakow, B.J.; Ulibarri, V.A.; Moore, B.A.; McIver, N.D. Posttraumatic stress disorder and sleep-disordered breathing: a review of comorbidity research. Sleep Med. Rev., 2015, 24, 37-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2014.11.001] [PMID: 25644985]
[14]
Barden, N.; Reul, J.M.H.M.; Holsboer, F. Do antidepressants stabilize mood through actions on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system? Trends Neurosci., 1995, 18(1), 6-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(95)93942-Q] [PMID: 7535490]
[15]
Nikisch, G. Involvement and role of antidepressant drugs of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and glucocorticoid receptor function. Neuroendocrinol. Lett., 2009, 30(1), 11-16.
[PMID: 19300389]
[16]
Barden, N. Modulation of glucocorticoid receptor gene expression by antidepressant drugs. Pharmacopsychiatry, 1996, 29(1), 12-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-979536] [PMID: 8852529]
[17]
Heydendael, W.; Jacobson, L. Widespread hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis-relevant and mood-relevant effects of chronic fluoxetine treatment on glucocorticoid receptor gene expression in mice. Eur. J. Neurosci., 2010, 31(5), 892-902.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07131.x] [PMID: 20374287]
[18]
De Crescenzo, F.; D’Alò, G.L.; Ostinelli, E.G.; Ciabattini, M.; Di Franco, V.; Watanabe, N.; Kurtulmus, A.; Tomlinson, A.; Mitrova, Z.; Foti, F.; Del Giovane, C.; Quested, D.J.; Cowen, P.J.; Barbui, C.; Amato, L.; Efthimiou, O.; Cipriani, A. Comparative effects of pharmacological interventions for the acute and long-term management of insomnia disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet, 2022, 400(10347), 170-184.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00878-9] [PMID: 35843245]
[19]
Samara, M.T. What is the right drug for insomnia disorder? Lancet, 2022, 400(10347), 139-141.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01322-8] [PMID: 35843230]
[20]
Ressler, K.J. Alpha-Adrenergic Receptors in PTSD — Failure or time for precision medicine? N. Engl. J. Med., 2018, 378(6), 575-576.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe1716724] [PMID: 29414268]
[21]
Williams, T.; Phillips, N.J.; Stein, D.J.; Ipser, J.C. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2022, 3(3), CD002795.
[PMID: 35234292]
[22]
DerSimonian, R.; Laird, N. Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Control. Clin. Trials, 1986, 7(3), 177-188.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0197-2456(86)90046-2] [PMID: 3802833]
[23]
Deeks, J.J.; Higgins, J.P.T.; Altman, D.J. Analyzing data and undertaking meta-analyses. In: Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions 1st ed; Higgins, J.P.T.; Green, S., Eds.; Wiley and Sons: Chichester, England, 2008; pp. 244-293.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470712184.ch9]
[24]
Martenyi, F.; Brown, E.B.; Zhang, H.; Koke, S.C.; Prakash, A. Fluoxetine v. placebo in prevention of relapse in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry, 2002, 181(4), 315-320.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.181.4.315] [PMID: 12356658]
[25]
Davidson, J.R.T.; Connor, K.M.; Hertzberg, M.A.; Weisler, R.H.; Wilson, W.H.; Payne, V.M. Maintenance therapy with fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder: a placebo-controlled discontinuation study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2005, 25(2), 166-169.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.jcp.0000155817.21467.6c] [PMID: 15738748]
[26]
A study of flexible dose brexpiprazole as monotherapy or combination therapy in the treatment of adults with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03033069, 2000.https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03033069
[27]
Attachment to FDA approval letter NDA 20-031/S-029. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2001.https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2001/20031s29lbl.pdf
[28]
Tucker, P.; Potter-Kimball, R.; Wyatt, D.B.; Parker, D.E.; Burgin, C.; Jones, D.E.; Masters, B.K. Can physiologic assessment and side effects tease out differences in PTSD trials? A double-blind comparison of citalopram, sertraline, and placebo. Psychopharmacol. Bull., 2003, 37(3), 135-149.
[PMID: 14608246]
[29]
Davidson, J.; Rothbaum, B.O.; Tucker, P.; Asnis, G.; Benattia, I.; Musgnung, J.J. Venlafaxine extended release in posttraumatic stress disorder: a sertraline- and placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2006, 26(3), 259-267.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.jcp.0000222514.71390.c1] [PMID: 16702890]
[30]
Önder, E.; Tural, Ü.; Aker, T. A comparative study of fluoxetine, moclobemide, and tianeptine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder following an earthquake. Eur. Psychiatry, 2006, 21(3), 174-179.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.03.007] [PMID: 15964747]
[31]
Spivak, B.; Strous, R.D.; Shaked, G.; Shabash, E.; Kotler, M.; Weizman, A. Reboxetine versus fluvoxamine in the treatment of motor vehicle accident-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a double-blind, fixed-dosage, controlled trial. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2006, 26(2), 152-156.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.jcp.0000203195.65710.f0] [PMID: 16633143]
[32]
Chung, M.Y.; Min, K.H.; Jun, Y.J.; Kim, S.S.; Kim, W.C.; Jun, E.M. Efficacy and tolerability of mirtazapine and sertraline in Korean veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized open label trial. Hum. Psychopharmacol., 2004, 19(7), 489-494.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hup.615] [PMID: 15378676]
[33]
McRae, A.L.; Brady, K.T.; Mellman, T.A.; Sonne, S.C.; Killeen, T.K.; Timmerman, M.A.; Bayles-Dazet, W. Comparison of nefazodone and sertraline for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress. Anxiety, 2004, 19(3), 190-196.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20008] [PMID: 15129422]
[34]
Seo, H.J.; Jung, Y.E.; Bahk, W.M.; Jun, T.Y.; Chae, J.H. A comparison of mirtazapine and paroxetine for the treatment of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized open-label trial. Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci., 2010, 8(2), 84-89.
[35]
Becker, M.E.; Hertzberg, M.A.; Moore, S.D.; Dennis, M.F.; Bukenya, D.S.; Beckham, J.C. A placebo-controlled trial of bupropion SR in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2007, 27(2), 193-197.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0b013e318032eaed] [PMID: 17414245]
[36]
Hertzberg, M.A.; Moore, S.D.; Feldman, M.E.; Beckham, J.C. A preliminary study of bupropion sustained-release for smoking cessation in patients with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2001, 21(1), 94-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-200102000-00017] [PMID: 11199956]
[37]
Schneier, F.R.; Campeas, R.; Carcamo, J.; Glass, A.; Lewis-Fernandez, R.; Neria, Y.; Sanchez-Lacay, A.; Vermes, D.; Wall, M.M. Combined mirtazapine and SSRI treatment of PTSD: a placebo-controlled trial. Depress. Anxiety, 2015, 32(8), 570-579.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.22384] [PMID: 26115513]
[38]
Schneier, F.R.; Neria, Y.; Pavlicova, M.; Hembree, E.; Suh, E.J.; Amsel, L.; Marshall, R.D. Combined prolonged exposure therapy and paroxetine for PTSD related to the World Trade Center attack: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2012, 169(1), 80-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020321] [PMID: 21908494]
[39]
Simon, N.M.; Connor, K.M.; Lang, A.J.; Rauch, S.; Krulewicz, S.; LeBeau, R.T.; Davidson, J.R.T.; Stein, M.B.; Otto, M.W.; Foa, E.B.; Pollack, M.H. Paroxetine CR augmentation for posttraumatic stress disorder refractory to prolonged exposure therapy. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2008, 69(3), 400-405.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v69n0309] [PMID: 18348595]
[40]
Tripp, J.C.; Norman, S.B.; Kim, H.M.; Venners, M.R.; Martis, B.; Simon, N.M.; Stein, M.B.; Allard, C.B. Rauch. S.A.M. PROGrESS study team. Residual symptoms of PTSD following Sertraline plus enhanced medication management, Sertraline plus PE, and PE plus placebo. Psychiatry Res., 2020, 291, 113279. Epub 2020 Jul 4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113279] [PMID: 32763541]
[41]
Serotonin selective reuptake inhibitor treatment of dual diagnosis post-traumatic stress disorder and alcohol problems (DDx) ClinicalTrials. gov Identifier: NCT02504931, 2000.https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02504931
[42]
Trivedi, M.H.; Rush, A.J.; Wisniewski, S.R.; Nierenberg, A.A.; Warden, D.; Ritz, L.; Norquist, G.; Howland, R.H.; Lebowitz, B.; McGrath, P.J.; Shores-Wilson, K.; Biggs, M.M.; Balasubramani, G.K.; Fava, M. Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: implications for clinical practice. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2006, 163(1), 28-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.28] [PMID: 16390886]
[43]
Cipriani, A.; Furukawa, T.A.; Salanti, G.; Chaimani, A.; Atkinson, L.Z.; Ogawa, Y.; Leucht, S.; Ruhe, H.G.; Turner, E.H.; Higgins, J.P.T.; Egger, M.; Takeshima, N.; Hayasaka, Y.; Imai, H.; Shinohara, K.; Tajika, A.; Ioannidis, J.P.A.; Geddes, J.R. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs for the acute treatment of adults with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet, 2018, 391(10128), 1357-1366.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32802-7] [PMID: 29477251]
[44]
Cipriani, A.; Williams, T.; Nikolakopoulou, A.; Salanti, G.; Chaimani, A.; Ipser, J.; Cowen, P.J.; Geddes, J.R.; Stein, D.J. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of pharmacological treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: a network meta-analysis. Psychol. Med., 2018, 48(12), 1975-1984.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S003329171700349X] [PMID: 29254516]
[45]
Hoskins, M.; Pearce, J.; Bethell, A.; Dankova, L.; Barbui, C.; Tol, W.A.; van Ommeren, M.; de Jong, J.; Seedat, S.; Chen, H.; Bisson, J.I. Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry, 2015, 206(2), 93-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148551] [PMID: 25644881]
[46]
English, B.A.; Jewell, M.; Jewell, G.; Ambrose, S.; Davis, L.L. Treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in combat veterans with citalopram: an open trial. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2006, 26(1), 84-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.jcp.0000195043.39853.bc] [PMID: 16415713]
[47]
Seedat, S.; Stein, D.J.; Emsley, R.A. Open trial of citalopram in adults with post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2000, 3(2), 135-140.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1461145700001899] [PMID: 11343590]
[48]
Khouzam, H.R.; El-Gabalawi, F.; Donnelly, N.J. The clinical experience of citalopram in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: a report of two Persian Gulf War veterans. Mil. Med., 2001, 166(10), 921-923.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/milmed/166.10.921] [PMID: 11603249]
[49]
Jakubovski, E.; Varigonda, A.L.; Freemantle, N.; Taylor, M.J.; Bloch, M.H. Systematic review and meta-analysis: dose-response relationship of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2016, 173(2), 174-183.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15030331] [PMID: 26552940]
[50]
Burke, W.J. Escitalopram. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs, 2002, 11(10), 1477-1486.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/13543784.11.10.1477] [PMID: 12387707]
[51]
Funk, K.A.; Bostwick, J.R. A comparison of the risk of QT prolongation among SSRIs. Ann. Pharmacother., 2013, 47(10), 1330-1341.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1060028013501994] [PMID: 24259697]
[52]
Nakatani, Y.; Amano, T. Contributions of S- and R-citalopram to the citalopram-induced modulation of the function of Nav1.5 voltage-gated sodium channels. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2021, 908, 174316.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174316] [PMID: 34280395]
[53]
Pastoor, D.; Gobburu, J. Clinical pharmacology review of escitalopram for the treatment of depression. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol., 2014, 10(1), 121-128.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/17425255.2014.863873] [PMID: 24289655]
[54]
Robert, S.; Hamner, M.B.; Ulmer, H.G.; Lorberbaum, J.P.; Durkalsk, V.L. Open-label trial of escitalopram in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2006, 67(10), 1522-1526.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v67n1005] [PMID: 17107242]
[55]
Ramaswamy, S.; Selvaraj, V.; Driscoll, D.; Madabushi, J.S.; Bhatia, S.C.; Yeragani, V. Effects of escitalopram on autonomic function in posttraumatic stress disorder among veterans of operations enduring freedom and iraqi freedom (OEF/OIF). Innov. Clin. Neurosci., 2015, 12(5-6), 13-19.
[PMID: 26155373]
[56]
Qi, W.; Gevonden, M.; Shalev, A. Efficacy and tolerability of high-dose escitalopram in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2017, 37(1), 89-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000626] [PMID: 27977469]
[57]
Magni, L.R.; Purgato, M.; Gastaldon, C.; Papola, D.; Furukawa, T.A.; Cipriani, A.; Barbui, C. Fluoxetine versus other types of pharmacotherapy for depression. Cochrane Libr., 2013, 17(7), CD004185.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004185.pub3] [PMID: 24353997]
[58]
Connor, K.M.; Sutherland, S.M.; Tupler, L.A.; Malik, M.L.; Jonathan, R.; Davidson, T. Fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1999, 175(1), 17-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.175.1.17] [PMID: 10621763]
[59]
Cohen, H.; Kotler, M.; Matar, M.; Kaplan, Z. Normalization of heart rate variability in post-traumatic stress disorder patients following fluoxetine treatment: preliminary results. Isr. Med. Assoc. J., 2000, 2(4), 296-301.
[PMID: 10804906]
[60]
Hertzberg, M.; Feldman, M.; Beckham, J.; Kudler, H.; Davidson, J. Lack of efficacy for fluoxetine in PTSD: a placebo controlled trial in combat veterans. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry, 2000, 12(2), 101-105.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10401230009147096] [PMID: 10907802]
[61]
Fernandez, M.; Pissiota, A.; Frans, Ö.; von Knorring, L.; Fischer, H.; Fredrikson, M. Brain function in a patient with torture related post-traumatic stress disorder before and after fluoxetine treatment: a positron emission tomography provocation study. Neurosci. Lett., 2001, 297(2), 101-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3940(00)01674-8] [PMID: 11121880]
[62]
Barnett, S.D.; Tharwani, H.M.; Hertzberg, M.A.; Sutherland, S.M.; Connor, K.M.; Davidson, J.R.T. Tolerability of fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2002, 26(2), 363-367.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5846(01)00282-2] [PMID: 11822351]
[63]
Martenyi, F.; Brown, E.B.; Zhang, H.; Prakash, A.; Koke, S.C. Fluoxetine versus placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2002, 63(3), 199-206.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v63n0305] [PMID: 11926718]
[64]
van der Kolk, B.A.; Spinazzola, J.; Blaustein, M.E. Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing reduces PTSD symptoms compared with fluoxetine at six months post-treatment. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2007, 68, 37-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v68n0105] [PMID: 17284128]
[65]
McDougle, C.J.; Southwick, S.M.; Charney, D.S.; St James, R.L. An open trial of fluoxetine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1991, 11(5), 325-327.
[PMID: 1765575]
[66]
Davidson, J.; Roth, S.; Newman, E. Fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress, 1991, 4(3), 419-423.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490040309]
[67]
Shay, J. Fluoxetine reduces explosiveness and elevates mood of vietnam combat vets with PTSD. J. Trauma. Stress, 1992, 5(1), 97-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490050110]
[68]
March, J.S. Fluoxetine and fluvoxamine in PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1992, 149(3), 413.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.149.3.413] [PMID: 1536287]
[69]
Nagy, L.M.; Morgan, C.A., III; Southwick, S.M.; Charney, D.S. Open prospective trial of fluoxetine for posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1993, 13(2), 107-113.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199304000-00004] [PMID: 8463442]
[70]
van der Kolk, B.A.; Dreyfuss, D.; Michaels, M.; Shera, D.; Berkowitz, R.; Fisler, R.; Saxe, G. Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1994, 55(12), 517-522.
[PMID: 7814344]
[71]
Folnegović-Šmalc, V.; Folnegović, Z.; Henigsberg, N.; Jernej, B.; Makarić, G.; Mimica, N. Efficacy of fluoxetine in PTSD patients. Abstr 6th World Congr Biol Psychiatry, 1997.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(97)86997-1]
[72]
Meltzer-Brody, S.; Connor, K.M.; Churchill, E.; Davidson, J.R.T. Symptom-specific effects of fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2000, 15(4), 227-231.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-200015040-00006] [PMID: 10954063]
[73]
Martenyi, F.; Brown, E.B.; Caldwell, C.D. Failed efficacy of fluoxetine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2007, 27(2), 166-170.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0b013e31803308ce] [PMID: 17414240]
[74]
De Boer, M.; Op den Velde, W.; Falger, P.J.R.; Hovens, J.E.; De Groen, J.H.M.; Van Duijn, H. Fluvoxamine treatment for chronic PTSD: a pilot study. Psychother. Psychosom., 1992, 57(4), 158-163.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000288593] [PMID: 1410191]
[75]
Davidson, J.R.T.; Weisler, R.H.; Malik, M.; Tupler, L.A. Fluvoxamine in civilians with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1998, 18(1), 93-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199802000-00020] [PMID: 9472854]
[76]
Neylan, T.C.; Metzler, T.J.; Schoenfeld, F.B.; Weiss, D.S.; Lenoci, M.; Best, S.R.; Lipsey, T.L.; Marmar, C.R. Fluvoxamine and sleep disturbances in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress, 2001, 14(3), 461-467.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1011100420978] [PMID: 11534878]
[77]
Marmar, C.R.; Schoenfeld, F.; Weiss, D.S.; Metzler, T.; Zatzick, D.; Wu, R.; Smiga, S.; Tecott, L.; Neylan, T. Open trial of fluvoxamine treatment for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1996, 57(8)(Suppl. 8), 66-70.
[PMID: 8698684]
[78]
Escalona, R.; Canive, J.M.; Calais, L.A.; Davidson, J.R.T. Fluvoxamine treatment in veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Depress. Anxiety, 2002, 15(1), 29-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.1082] [PMID: 11816050]
[79]
Schoenfeld, F.B.; DeViva, J.C.; Manber, R. Treatment of sleep disturbances in posttraumatic stress disorder: A review. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev., 2012, 49(5), 729-752.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2011.09.0164] [PMID: 23015583]
[80]
Reboxetine an effective alternative for PTSD. Inpharma Wkly, 2006, 1539, 12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128413-200615390-00035]
[81]
Post-traumatic stress disorder: NICE guideline [NG116]. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). 2018.https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116/resources/posttraumaticstress-disorder-pdf-66141601777861
[82]
Marshall, R.D.; Beebe, K.L.; Oldham, M.; Zaninelli, R. Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment for chronic PTSD: a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2001, 158(12), 1982-1988.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.12.1982] [PMID: 11729013]
[83]
Tucker, P.; Zaninelli, R.; Yehuda, R.; Ruggiero, L.; Dillingham, K.; Pitts, C.D. Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2001, 62(11), 860-868.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v62n1105] [PMID: 11775045]
[84]
Stein, D.J.; Davidson, J.; Seedat, S.; Beebe, K. Paroxetine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: pooled analysis of placebo-controlled studies. Expert Opin. Pharmacother., 2003, 4(10), 1829-1838.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14656566.4.10.1829] [PMID: 14521492]
[85]
Sheehan, D.; Beebe, K.L.; Dube, E.M. Paroxetine for the treatment of sleep disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2002, 12(3), 356.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-977X(02)80568-5]
[86]
de Moraes Costa, G.; Ziegelmann, P.K.; Zanatta, F.B.; Martins, C.C.; de Moraes Costa, P.; Mello, C.F. Efficacy, acceptability, and tolerability of antidepressants for sleep quality disturbances in post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 2022, 117(110557), 110557.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2022.110557] [PMID: 35395322]
[87]
Prazosin vs. paroxetine in combat stress-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) nightmares & sleep disturbance. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00202449, 2000.https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00202449
[88]
Combination Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) After the World Trade Center (WTC) Attack. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01130103, 2000.https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01130103
[89]
Tucker, P.; Beebe, K.L.; Burgin, C.; Wyatt, D.B.; Parker, D.E.; Masters, B.K.; Nawar, O. Paroxetine treatment of depression with posttraumatic stress disorder: effects on autonomic reactivity and cortisol secretion. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2004, 24(2), 131-140.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.jcp.0000116649.91923.cb] [PMID: 15206659]
[90]
O’Connor, C.M.; Jiang, W.; Kuchibhatla, M.; Silva, S.G.; Cuffe, M.S.; Callwood, D.D.; Zakhary, B.; Stough, W.G.; Arias, R.M.; Rivelli, S.K.; Krishnan, R. Safety and efficacy of sertraline for depression in patients with heart failure: results of the SADHARTCHF (Sertraline Against Depression and Heart Disease in Chronic Heart Failure) trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2010, 56(9), 692-699.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.03.068] [PMID: 20723799]
[91]
Alexander, W. Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in combat veterans: focus on antidepressants and atypical antipsychotic agents. P&T, 2012, 37(1), 32-38.
[PMID: 22346334]
[92]
Sharpley, A.L.; Cowen, P.J. Effect of pharmacologic treatments on the sleep of depressed patients. Biol. Psychiatry, 1995, 37(2), 85-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(94)00135-P] [PMID: 7718684]
[93]
Mellman, T.A.; Pigeon, W.R.; Nowell, P.D.; Nolan, B. Relationships between REM sleep findings and PTSD symptoms during the early aftermath of trauma. J. Trauma. Stress, 2007, 20(5), 893-901.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jts.20246] [PMID: 17955526]
[94]
Brady, K.; Pearlstein, T.; Asnis, G.M.; Baker, D.; Rothbaum, B.; Sikes, C.R.; Farfel, G.M. Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2000, 283(14), 1837-1844.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.14.1837] [PMID: 10770145]
[95]
Davidson, J.R.T.; Rothbaum, B.O.; van der Kolk, B.A.; Sikes, C.R.; Farfel, G.M. Multicenter, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2001, 58(5), 485-492.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.485] [PMID: 11343529]
[96]
Davidson, J.R.T.; Landerman, L.R.; Farfel, G.M.; Clary, C.M. Characterizing the effects of sertraline in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med., 2002, 32(4), 661-670.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291702005469] [PMID: 12102380]
[97]
Friedman, M.J.; Marmar, C.R.; Baker, D.G.; Sikes, C.R.; Farfel, G.M. Randomized, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo for posttraumatic stress disorder in a Department of Veterans Affairs setting. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2007, 68(5), 711-720.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v68n0508] [PMID: 17503980]
[98]
Davidson, J.; Baldwin, D.; Stein, D.J.; Kuper, E.; Benattia, I.; Ahmed, S.; Pedersen, R.; Musgnung, J. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with venlafaxine extended release: a 6-month randomized controlled trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2006, 63(10), 1158-1165.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.10.1158] [PMID: 17015818]
[99]
Li, W.; Ma, Y.B.; Yang, Q.; Li, B.; Meng, Q.G.; Zhang, Y. Effect and safety of sertraline for treat posttraumatic stress disorder: a multicenter randomised controlled study. Int. J. Psychiatry Clin. Pract., 2017, 21(2), 151-155.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13651501.2017.1291838] [PMID: 28266242]
[100]
Panahi, Y.; Moghaddam, B.R.; Sahebkar, A.; Nazari, M.A.; Beiraghdar, F.; Karami, G.; Saadat, A.R. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial on the efficacy and tolerability of sertraline in Iranian veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med., 2011, 41(10), 2159-2166.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711000201] [PMID: 21349225]
[101]
Zohar, J.; Amital, D.; Miodownik, C.; Kotler, M.; Bleich, A.; Lane, R.M.; Austin, C. Double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study of sertraline in military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2002, 22(2), 190-195.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-200204000-00013] [PMID: 11910265]
[102]
Robb, A.S.; Cueva, J.E.; Sporn, J.; Yang, R.; Vanderburg, D.G. Sertraline treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol., 2010, 20(6), 463-471.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cap.2009.0115] [PMID: 21186964]
[103]
Kamo, T.; Maeda, M.; Oe, M.; Kato, H.; Shigemura, J.; Kuribayashi, K.; Hoshino, Y. Dosage, effectiveness, and safety of sertraline treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in a Japanese clinical setting: a retrospective study. BMC Psychiatry, 2016, 16(1), 434.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1138-5] [PMID: 27923359]
[104]
Detke, M.J.; Wiltse, C.G.; Mallinckrodt, C.H.; McNamara, R.K.; Demitrack, M.A.; Bitter, I. Duloxetine in the acute and long-term treatment of major depressive disorder: a placebo- and paroxetine-controlled trial. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2004, 14(6), 457-470.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2004.01.002] [PMID: 15589385]
[105]
Walderhaug, E.; Kasserman, S.; Aikins, D.; Vojvoda, D.; Nishimura, C.; Neumeister, A. Effects of duloxetine in treatment-refractory men with posttraumatic stress disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry, 2010, 43(2), 45-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1237694] [PMID: 20108200]
[106]
Villarreal, G.; Cañive, J.M.; Calais, L.A.; Toney, G.; Smith, A.K. Duloxetine in military posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacol. Bull., 2010, 43(3), 26-34.
[PMID: 21150844]
[107]
Deneys, M.L.; Ahearn, E.P. Exacerbation of PTSD symptoms with use of duloxetine. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2006, 67(3), 393-394.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v67n0323c] [PMID: 16649841]
[108]
Hanretta, A.T.; Malek-Ahmadi, P. Combined use of ECT with duloxetine and olanzapine: a case report. J. ECT, 2006, 22(2), 139-141.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00124509-200606000-00012] [PMID: 16801831]
[109]
Coutens, B.; Yrondi, A.; Rampon, C.; Guiard, B.P. Psychopharmacological properties and therapeutic profile of the antidepressant venlafaxine. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 2022, 239(9), 2735-2752.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-022-06203-8] [PMID: 35947166]
[110]
Stein, D.J.; Pedersen, R.; Rothbaum, B.O.; Baldwin, D.S.; Ahmed, S.; Musgnung, J.; Davidson, J. Onset of activity and time to response on individual CAPS-SX17 items in patients treated for post-traumatic stress disorder with venlafaxine ER: a pooled analysis. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2009, 12(1), 23-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1461145708008961] [PMID: 18544181]
[111]
Larrey, D.; Ripault, M.P. Hepatotoxicity of psychotropic drugs and drugs of abuse. In: Drug-induced liver disease, 3rd ed;; Kaplowitz, N.; DeLeve, L.D., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 2013; pp. 443-462.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387817-5.00025-X]
[112]
Spigset, O.; Hägg, S.; Bate, A. Hepatic injury and pancreatitis during treatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2003, 18(3), 157-161.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.yic.0000066455.73432.d2] [PMID: 12702895]
[113]
Hidalgo, R.; Hertzberg, M.A.; Mellman, T.; Petty, F.; Tucker, P.; Weisler, R.; Zisook, S.; Chen, S.; Churchill, E.; Davidson, J. Nefazodone in post-traumatic stress disorder: results from six open-label trials. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1999, 14(2), 61-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-199903000-00001] [PMID: 10220119]
[114]
Cohn, C.K.; Robinson, D.S.; Roberts, D.L.; Schwiderski, U.E.; O’Brien, K.; Ieni, J.R. Responders to antidepressant drug treatment: a study comparing nefazodone, imipramine, and placebo in patients with major depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1996, 57(2)(Suppl. 2), 15-18.
[PMID: 8626358]
[115]
Armitage, R.; Yonkers, K.; Cole, D.; Rush, A.J. A multicenter, double-blind comparison of the effects of nefazodone and fluoxetine on sleep architecture and quality of sleep in depressed outpatients. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1997, 17(3), 161-168.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199706000-00004] [PMID: 9169959]
[116]
Davidson, J.R.T.; Weisler, R.H.; Malik, M.L.; Connor, K.M. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with nefazodone. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1998, 13(3), 111-114.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-199805000-00003] [PMID: 9690977]
[117]
Gillin, J.C.; Smith-Vaniz, A.; Schnierow, B.; Rapaport, M.H.; Kelsoe, J.; Raimo, E.; Marler, M.R.; Goyette, L.M.; Stein, M.B.; Zisook, S. An open-label, 12-week clinical and sleep EEG study of nefazodone in chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2001, 62(10), 789-796.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v62n1007] [PMID: 11816868]
[118]
Hertzberg, M.A.; Feldman, M.E.; Beckham, J.C.; Moore, S.D.; Davidson, J.R.T. Open trial of nefazodone for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1998, 59(9), 460-464.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v59n0904] [PMID: 9771816]
[119]
Hertzberg, M.; Feldman, M.; Beckham, J.; Moore, S.; Davidson, J. Three- to four-year follow-up to an open trial of nefazodone for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry, 2002, 14(4), 215-221.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10401230209147460] [PMID: 12630657]
[120]
Mellman, T.A.; David, D.; Barza, L. Nefazodone treatment and dream reports in chronic PTSD. Depress. Anxiety, 1999, 9(3), 146-148.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1999)9:3<146:AID-DA9>3.0.CO;2-Y] [PMID: 10356655]
[121]
Neylan, T.C.; Lenoci, M.; Maglione, M.L.; Rosenlicht, N.Z.; Leykin, Y.; Metzler, T.J.; Schoenfeld, F.B.; Marmar, C.R. The effect of nefazodone on subjective and objective sleep quality in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2003, 64(4), 445-450.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v64n0415] [PMID: 12716248]
[122]
Zisook, S.; Chentsova-Dutton, Y.E.; Smith-Vaniz, A.; Kline, N.A.; Ellenor, G.L.; Kodsi, A.B.; Gillin, J.C. Nefazodone in patients with treatment-refractory posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2000, 61(3), 203-208.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v61n0310] [PMID: 10817106]
[123]
Montalbano, A.; Mlinar, B.; Bonfiglio, F.; Polenzani, L.; Magnani, M.; Corradetti, R. Dual inhibitory action of trazodone on dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons through 5-HT1A receptor partial agonism and α1-adrenoceptor antagonism. PLoS One, 2019, 14(9), e0222855.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222855] [PMID: 31557210]
[124]
Atkin, T.; Comai, S.; Gobbi, G. Drugs for insomnia beyond benzodiazepines: pharmacology, clinical applications, and discovery. Pharmacol. Rev., 2018, 70(2), 197-245.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/pr.117.014381] [PMID: 29487083]
[125]
Wichniak, A.; Wierzbicka, A.; Jarema, M. Treatment of insomnia – effect of trazodone and hypnotics on sleep. Psychiatr. Pol., 2021, 55(4), 743-755.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12740/PP/125650] [PMID: 34994734]
[126]
Ashford, J.W.; Miller, T.W. Effects of trazodone on sleep in patients diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). J. Contemp. Psychother., 1996, 26(3), 221-233.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02307588]
[127]
Hertzberg, M.A.; Feldman, M.E.; Beckham, J.C.; Davidson, J.R.T. Trial of trazodone for posttraumatic stress disorder using a multiple baseline group design. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1996, 16(4), 294-298.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199608000-00004] [PMID: 8835704]
[128]
Warner, M.D.; Dorn, M.R.; Peabody, C.A. Survey on the usefulness of trazodone in patients with PTSD with insomnia or nightmares. Pharmacopsychiatry, 2001, 34(4), 128-131.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2001-15871] [PMID: 11518472]
[129]
Sepede, G.; Corbo, M.; Fiori, F.; Martinotti, G. Reboxetine in clinical practice: a review. Clin. Ter., 2012, 163(4), e255-e262.
[PMID: 23007832]
[130]
McClure, E.W.; Daniels, R.N. Classics in chemical neuroscience: amitriptyline. ACS Chem. Neurosci., 2021, 12(3), 354-362.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00467] [PMID: 33438398]
[131]
Everitt, H.; McDermott, L.; Leydon, G.; Yules, H.; Baldwin, D.; Little, P. GPs’ management strategies for patients with insomnia: a survey and qualitative interview study. Br. J. Gen. Pract., 2014, 64(619), e112-e119.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3399/bjgp14X677176] [PMID: 24567616]
[132]
Everitt, H.; Baldwin, D.S.; Stuart, B.; Lipinska, G.; Mayers, A.; Malizia, A.L.; Manson, C.C.; Wilson, S. Antidepressants for insomnia in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2018, 5(5), CD010753.
[PMID: 29761479]
[133]
Davidson, J.; Kudler, H.; Smith, R.; Mahorney, S.L.; Lipper, S.; Hammett, E.; Saunders, W.B.; Cavenar, J.O., Jr Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1990, 47(3), 259-266.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810150059010] [PMID: 2407208]
[134]
Davidson, J.R.T.; Kudler, H.S.; Saunders, W.B.; Erickson, L.; Smith, R.D.; Stein, R.M.; Lipper, S.; Hammett, E.B.; Mahorney, S.L.; Cavenar, J.O. Jr Predicting response to amitriptyline in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1993, 150(7), 1024-1029.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.150.7.1024] [PMID: 8317571]
[135]
Falcon, S.; Ryan, C.; Chamberlain, K.; Curtis, G. Tricyclics: possible treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1985, 46(9), 385-388.
[PMID: 3897205]
[136]
Bleich, A.; Siegel, B.; Garb, R.; Lerer, B. Post-traumatic stress disorder following combat exposure: clinical features and psychopharmacological treatment. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1986, 149(3), 365-369.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.149.3.365] [PMID: 2877705]
[137]
Başoǧlu, M.; Marks, I.M.; Sengün, S. Amitriptyline for PTSD in a torture survivor: a case study. J. Trauma. Stress, 1992, 5(1), 77-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00976812]
[138]
Gillman, P.K. Tricyclic antidepressant pharmacology and therapeutic drug interactions updated. Br. J. Pharmacol., 2007, 151(6), 737-748.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0707253] [PMID: 17471183]
[139]
Chen, C.J. The obsessive quality and clomipramine treatment in PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148(8), 1087-1088.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.148.8.1087] [PMID: 1853963]
[140]
Maan, J.S.; Rosani, A.; Saadabadi, A. Desipramine. In: StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, 2022.
[141]
Shimamura, T.; Shiroishi, M.; Weyand, S.; Tsujimoto, H.; Winter, G.; Katritch, V.; Abagyan, R.; Cherezov, V.; Liu, W.; Han, G.W.; Kobayashi, T.; Stevens, R.C.; Iwata, S. Structure of the human histamine H1 receptor complex with doxepin. Nature, 2011, 475(7354), 65-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10236] [PMID: 21697825]
[142]
Boehnlein, J.K.; Kinzie, J.D.; Ben, R.; Fleck, J. One-year follow-up study of posttraumatic stress disorder among survivors of Cambodian concentration camps. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1985, 142(8), 956-959.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.142.8.956] [PMID: 4025594]
[143]
White, N.S. Posttraumatic stress disorder. Hosp. Community Psychiatry, 1983, 34(11), 1061-1062.
[PMID: 6642454]
[144]
Burstein, A.; Burstein, A. Treatment of night terrors with imipramine. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1983, 44(2), 82.
[PMID: 6826538]
[145]
Burstein, A. Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder with imipramine. Psychosomatics, 1984, 25(9), 681-687.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(84)72977-X] [PMID: 6494405]
[146]
Kinzie, J.D.; Leung, P. Clonidine in Cambodian patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1989, 177(9), 546-550.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-198909000-00005] [PMID: 2769247]
[147]
Alamo, C.; García-Garcia, P.; Lopez-Muñoz, F.; Zaragozá, C. Tianeptine, an atypical pharmacological approach to depression. Rev. Psiquiatr y Salud Ment., 2019, 12(3), 170-186.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rpsmen.2018.09.001]
[148]
Gassaway, M.M.; Rives, M-L.; Kruegel, A.C.; Javitch, J.A.; Sames, D. The atypical antidepressant and neurorestorative agent tianeptine is a μ-opioid receptor agonist. Transl. Psychiatry, 2014, 4(7), e411-e415.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.30] [PMID: 25026323]
[149]
Svenningsson, P.; Bateup, H.; Qi, H.; Takamiya, K.; Huganir, R.L.; Spedding, M.; Roth, B.L.; McEwen, B.S.; Greengard, P. Involvement of AMPA receptor phosphorylation in antidepressant actions with special reference to tianeptine. Eur. J. Neurosci., 2007, 26(12), 3509-3517.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05952.x] [PMID: 18088278]
[150]
Wilde, M.I.; Benfield, P. Tianeptine. Drugs, 1995, 49(3), 411-439.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199549030-00007] [PMID: 7774514]
[151]
Vuković, O.; Marić, N.P.; Britvić, D.; Cvetić, T.; Damjanović, A.; Prostran, M.; Jasović-Gasić, M. Efficacy, tolerability and safety of tianeptine in special populations of depressive patients. Psychiatr. Danub., 2009, 21(2), 194-198.
[PMID: 19556948]
[152]
Jilani, T.N.; Gibbons, J.R.; Faizy, R.M. Mirtazapine. In: StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, 2022.
[153]
Lewis, J.D. Mirtazapine for PTSD Nightmares. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2002, 159(11), 1948-a-1949.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.11.1948-a] [PMID: 12411239]
[154]
Davis, L.L.; Pilkinton, P.; Lin, C.; Parker, P.; Estes, S.; Bartolucci, A. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of mirtazapine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in veterans. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2020, 81(6), 20m13267.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.20m13267] [PMID: 33084254]
[155]
Davidson, J.R.T.; Weisler, R.H.; Butterfield, M.I.; Casat, C.D.; Connor, K.M.; Barnett, S.; van Meter, S. Mirtazapine vs. placebo in post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot trial. Biol. Psychiatry, 2003, 53(2), 188-191.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01411-7] [PMID: 12547477]
[156]
Connor, K.M.; Davidson, J.R.T.; Weisler, R.H.; Ahearn, E. A pilot study of mirtazapine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1999, 14(1), 29-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-199901000-00003] [PMID: 10221639]
[157]
Lotufo-Neto, F.; Trivedi, M.; Thase, M.E. Meta-analysis of the reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase type A moclobemide and brofaromine for the treatment of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 1999, 20(3), 226-247.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00075-X] [PMID: 10063483]
[158]
Suchting, R.; Tirumalaraju, V.; Gareeb, R.; Bockmann, T.; de Dios, C.; Aickareth, J.; Pinjari, O.; Soares, J.C.; Cowen, P.J.; Selvaraj, S. Revisiting monoamine oxidase inhibitors for the treatment of depressive disorders: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord., 2021, 282, 1153-1160.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.01.021] [PMID: 33601690]
[159]
Katz, R.J.; Lott, M.H.; Arbus, P.; Crocq, L.; Herlobsen, P.; Lingjaerde, O.; Lopez, G.; Loughrey, G.C.; Macfarlane, D.J.; McIvor, R.; Mehlum, L.; Nugent, D.; Turner, S.W.; Weisaeth, L.; Yule, W. Pharmacotherapy of post-traumatic stress disorder with a novel psychotropic. Anxiety, 1994-1995, 1(4), 169-174.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anxi.3070010404] [PMID: 9160569]
[160]
Baker, D.G.; Diamond, B.I.; Gillette, G.; Hamner, M.; Katzelnick, D.; Keller, T.; Mellman, T.A.; Pontius, E.; Rosenthal, M.; Tucker, P. vander Kolk, B.A.; Katz, R. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multi-center study of brofaromine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology, 1995, 122(4), 386-389.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02246271] [PMID: 8657838]
[161]
Sub Laban, T.; Saadabadi, A. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI). In: StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, 2022.
[162]
Thase, M.E. MAOIs and depression treatment guidelines. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2012, 73(7), e24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.11096tx4c] [PMID: 22901357]
[163]
Neal, L.A.; Shapland, W.; Fox, C. An open trial of moclobemide in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1997, 12(4), 231-237.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-199707000-00008] [PMID: 9347385]
[164]
Sidhu, G.; Marwaha, R. Phenelzine. In: StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, 2022.
[165]
Chamberlain, S.R.; Baldwin, D.S. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) in psychiatric practice: how to use them safely and effectively. CNS Drugs, 2021, 35(7), 703-716.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40263-021-00832-x] [PMID: 34240393]
[166]
Walker, J.I. Chemotherapy of traumatic war stress. Mil. Med., 1982, 147(12), 1029-1033.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/milmed/147.12.1029] [PMID: 6817194]
[167]
Shestatzky, M.; Greenberg, D.; Lerer, B. A controlled trial of phenelzine in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res., 1988, 24(2), 149-155.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(88)90057-1] [PMID: 3406235]
[168]
Davidson, J.; Walker, J.I.; Kilts, C. A pilot study of phenelzine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1987, 150(2), 252-255.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.150.2.252] [PMID: 3651684]
[169]
Lerer, B.; Bleich, A.; Kotler, M.; Garb, R.; Hertzberg, M.; Levin, B. Posttraumatic stress disorder in Israeli combat veterans. Effect of phenelzine treatment. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1987, 44(11), 976-981.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800230056010] [PMID: 3314769]
[170]
Milanes, F.J.; Mack, C.N.; Dennison, J.; Slater, V.L. Phenelzine treatment of post-Vietnam stress syndome. VA Pract., 1984, 1(6), 40-49.
[171]
Hogben, G.L.; Cornfield, R.B. Treatment of traumatic war neurosis with phenelzine. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1981, 38(4), 440-445.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1981.01780290074008] [PMID: 7212974]
[172]
Lanman, R.; Lanman, R.; Rankin, M. Traumatic war neurosis and phenelzine. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1982, 39(11), 1345.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1982.04290110093018] [PMID: 7138237]
[173]
Shen, W.W.; Park, S. The use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors in the treatment of traumatic war neurosis: case report. Mil. Med., 1983, 148(5), 430-431.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/milmed/148.5.430] [PMID: 6408524]
[174]
Pandhare, A.; Pappu, A.S.; Wilms, H.; Blanton, M.P.; Jansen, M. The antidepressant bupropion is a negative allosteric modulator of serotonin type 3A receptors. Neuropharmacology, 2017, 113(Pt A), 89-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.09.021] [PMID: 27671323]
[175]
Cañive, J.M.; Clark, R.D.; Calais, L.A.; Qualls, C.; Tuason, V.B. Bupropion treatment in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: an open study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1998, 18(5), 379-383.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199810000-00005] [PMID: 9790155]
[176]
Kojima, G.; Tamai, A.; Karino, S.; Yuasa, M.; Epure, J.; Tsuzaki, B.; Tanabe, M. Bupropion-related visual hallucinations in a veteran with posttraumatic stress disorder and multiple sclerosis. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2013, 33(5), 717-719.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0b013e3182a11622] [PMID: 23963062]
[177]
Dagan, Y.; Yager, J. Severe bupropion XR abuse in a patient with long‐standing bulimia nervosa and complex PTSD. Int. J. Eat. Disord., 2018, 51(10), 1207-1209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.22948] [PMID: 30230570]
[178]
Wang, S.M.; Han, C.; Lee, S.J.; Patkar, A.A.; Masand, P.S.; Pae, C.U. Vilazodone for the treatment of depression: an update. Chonnam Med. J., 2016, 52(2), 91-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4068/cmj.2016.52.2.91] [PMID: 27231672]
[179]
Laughren, T.P.; Gobburu, J.; Temple, R.J.; Unger, E.F.; Bhattaram, A.; Dinh, P.V.; Fossom, L.; Hung, H.M.J.; Klimek, V.; Lee, J.E.; Levin, R.L.; Lindberg, C.Y.; Mathis, M.; Rosloff, B.N.; Wang, S.J.; Wang, Y.; Yang, P.; Yu, B.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, L.; Zineh, I. Vilazodone. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2011, 72(9), 1166-1173.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.11r06984] [PMID: 21951984]
[180]
Vilazodone for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. ClinicalTrials. gov Identifier: NCT01715519, 2000.https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01715519
[181]
Ramaswamy, S; Driscoll, D; Reist, C A double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial of vilazodone in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid depression. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord., 2017, 19(4), 17m02138.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/PCC.17m02138]
[182]
Vortioxetine for posttraumatic stress disorder. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02637895, 2000. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02637895
[183]
Dunlop, B.W.; Rakofsky, J.J.; Newport, D.J.; Mletzko-Crowe, T.; Barone, K.; Nemeroff, C.B.; Harvey, P.D. Efficacy of vortioxetine monotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled Trial. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2021, 41(2), 172-179.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000001363] [PMID: 33587394]
[184]
Durand, D.; Calcagno, T.M.; Wong, A.; Newport, D.J.; Nemeroff, C.B.; Dunlop, B.W.; Harvey, P.D. Effects of vortioxetine versus placebo on cognition and functional capacity in adults with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2021, 41(4), 501-503.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000001414] [PMID: 34145182]
[185]
Imel, Z.E.; Laska, K.; Jakupcak, M.; Simpson, T.L. Meta-analysis of dropout in treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol., 2013, 81(3), 394-404.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031474] [PMID: 23339535]
[186]
Abdallah, C.G.; Averill, L.A.; Akiki, T.J.; Raza, M.; Averill, C.L.; Gomaa, H.; Adikey, A.; Krystal, J.H. The neurobiology and pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 2019, 59(1), 171-189.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010818-021701] [PMID: 30216745]
[187]
Quinones, M.M.; Gallegos, A.M.; Lin, F.V.; Heffner, K. Dysregulation of inflammation, neurobiology, and cognitive function in PTSD: an integrative review. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci., 2020, 20(3), 455-480.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13415-020-00782-9] [PMID: 32170605]
[188]
Baird, T.; Theal, R.; Gleeson, S.; McLeay, S.; O’Sullivan, R.; McLeay, S.; Harvey, W.; Romaniuk, M.; Crawford, D.; Colquhoun, D.; McD Young, R. Dwyer, M.; Gibson, J.; O’Sullivan, R.; Cooksley, G.; Strakosch, C.; Thomson, R.; Voisey, J.; Lawford, B. Detailed poly-somnography in Australian Vietnam veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Clin. Sleep Med., 2018, 14(9), 1577-1586.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.7340] [PMID: 30176975]
[189]
Brownlow, J.A.; Miller, K.E.; Gehrman, P.R. Treatment of sleep comorbidities in posttraumatic stress disorder. Curr. Treat. Options Psychiatry, 2020, 7(3), 301-316.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40501-020-00222-y] [PMID: 33552844]
[190]
Lancel, M.; van Marle, H.J.F.; Van Veen, M.M.; van Schagen, A.M. Disturbed sleep in PTSD: thinking beyond nightmares. Front. Psychiatry, 2021, 12, 767760.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.767760] [PMID: 34899428]
[191]
Zhang, Y.; Ren, R.; Sanford, L.D.; Yang, L.; Ni, Y.; Zhou, J.; Zhang, J.; Wing, Y.K.; Shi, J.; Lu, L.; Tang, X. The effects of prazosin on sleep disturbances in post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med., 2020, 67, 225-231.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2019.06.010] [PMID: 31972510]
[192]
Germain, A.; Hall, M.; Krakow, B.; Katherine Shear, M.; Buysse, D.J. A brief sleep scale for posttraumatic stress disorder: Pittsburgh sleep quality index addendum for PTSD. J. Anxiety Disord., 2005, 19(2), 233-244.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.02.001] [PMID: 15533706]
[193]
Samara, M.T.; Huhn, M.; Chiocchia, V.; Schneider-Thoma, J.; Wiegand, M.; Salanti, G.; Leucht, S. Efficacy, acceptability, and tolerability of all available treatments for insomnia in the elderly: a systematic review and network meta‐analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 2020, 142(1), 6-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/acps.13201] [PMID: 32521042]
[194]
Tribl, G.G.; Wetter, T.C.; Schredl, M. Dreaming under antidepressants: A systematic review on evidence in depressive patients and healthy volunteers. Sleep Med. Rev., 2013, 17(2), 133-142.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2012.05.001] [PMID: 22800769]
[195]
Leucht, S.; Leucht, C.; Huhn, M.; Chaimani, A.; Mavridis, D.; Helfer, B.; Samara, M.; Rabaioli, M.; Bächer, S.; Cipriani, A.; Geddes, J.R.; Salanti, G.; Davis, J.M. Sixty years of placebo-controlled antipsychotic drug trials in acute schizophrenia: systematic review, bayesian meta-analysis, and meta-regression of efficacy predictors. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2017, 174(10), 927-942.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.16121358] [PMID: 28541090]
[196]
Gieselmann, A.; Ait Aoudia, M.; Carr, M.; Germain, A.; Gorzka, R.; Holzinger, B.; Kleim, B.; Krakow, B.; Kunze, A.E.; Lancee, J.; Nadorff, M.R.; Nielsen, T.; Riemann, D.; Sandahl, H.; Schlarb, A.A.; Schmid, C.; Schredl, M.; Spoormaker, V.I.; Steil, R.; van Schagen, A.M.; Wittmann, L.; Zschoche, M.; Pietrowsky, R. Aetiology and treatment of nightmare disorder: State of the art and future perspectives. J. Sleep Res., 2019, 28(4), e12820.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12820] [PMID: 30697860]
[197]
Marken, P.A.; Munro, J.S. Selecting a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor: clinically important distinguishing features. Prim. Care Companion J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2000, 2(6), 205-210.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/PCC.v02n0602] [PMID: 15014630]
[198]
Murata, Y.; Kamishioiri, Y.; Tanaka, K.; Sugimoto, H.; Sakamoto, S.; Kobayashi, D.; Mine, K. Severe sleepiness and excess sleep duration induced by paroxetine treatment is a beneficial pharmacological effect, not an adverse reaction. J. Affect. Disord., 2013, 150(3), 1209-1212.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.05.040] [PMID: 23809402]
[199]
Zhang, B.; Wang, C.; Cui, L.; Gao, J.; Wang, C.; Tan, X.; Fang, S. Short-term efficacy and tolerability of paroxetine versus placebo for panic disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front. Pharmacol., 2020, 11, 275.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00275] [PMID: 32296330]
[200]
Nevels, R.M.; Gontkovsky, S.T.; Williams, B.E. Paroxetine—the antidepressant from hell? Probably not, but caution required. Psychopharmacol. Bull., 2016, 46(1), 77-104.
[PMID: 27738376]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy