Abstract
Background: Seventy percent of the Earth is covered by water, out of which only 1% is fresh water. This fresh water can be used for drinking and other domestic uses. However, a drastic increase in the industrial revolution resulted in depletion of the reservoirs and contamination of the potable fresh water. Around 3.4 M deaths per annum occur as a result of waterborne diseases.
Objectives: Therefore, the aim of this study is to establish physical, chemical, and biological parameters for evaluating contamination in the drinking water of hospitals in the Bannu and Kohat divisions, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Method: Eleven different hospitals were selected for the collection of water samples. Total solids, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, and pH were considered significant physical metrics for this study. The essential and heavy metals were also quantified. Furthermore, biological parameters such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) content of drinking water were also studied by using membrane filtration.
Results: The results show that E. coli were detected in nine out of the eleven water samples. Moreover, some of the physicochemical parameters were not within guideline limits specified by the World Health and other international organizations.
Conclusion: E coli in most of the hospital drinking water was more than the WHO permissible level of the physiochemical parameters. This will have adverse effects on the health of patients which is a serious threat for the population. Therefore, this investigation provides useful information to the government to take special precautions for maintaining the quality of the potable water in government and private hospitals.
Graphical Abstract
[1]
Ismael, M.; Mokhtar, A.; Farooq, M.; Lü, X. Assessing drinking water quality based on physical, chemical and microbial parameters in the Red Sea State, Sudan using a combination of water quality index and artificial neural network model. Groundw. Sustain. Dev., 2021, 14, 100612.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100612]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100612]
[2]
World Health Organization (WHO). Water for Life: Making it Happen; World Health Organization; WHO: Geneva, 2005.
[3]
Aini, M.S.; Fakhrul-Razi, A.; Mumtazah, O.; Chen, J.C.M. Malaysian households’ drinking water practices: A case study. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol., 2007, 14(5), 503-510.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504500709469749]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504500709469749]
[4]
Zheng, X.; Yu, M.; Liang, H.; Qi, L.; Zheng, H.; Exler, H.; Schier, W.; Frechen, F.B. Membrane technology for municipal drinking water plants in China: progress and prospect. Desalination Water Treat., 2012, 49(1-3), 281-295.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.719337]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.719337]
[5]
Azizullah, A.; Khattak, M.N.K.; Richter, P.; Häder, D.P. Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health - A review. Environ. Int., 2011, 37(2), 479-497.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2010.10.007] [PMID: 21087795]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2010.10.007] [PMID: 21087795]
[6]
Khan, S.A.; Khan, S.B.; Farooq, A.; Asiri, A.M. A facile synthesis of CuAg nanoparticles on highly porous ZnO/carbon black-cellulose acetate sheets for nitroarene and azo dyes reduction. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 2019, 130, 288-299.
[7]
Khan, S.A.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. Layered double hydroxide of Cd-Al/C for the mineralization and de-coloration of dyes in solar and visible light exposure. Sci. Rep., 2016, 6, 35107.
[8]
Kalra, N.; Singh, R.; Yadav, S. Physico-chemical analysis of ground water taken from five blocks (Udwantnagar, Tarari, Charpokhar, Piro, Sahar) of southern Bhojpur (Bihar). J. Chem. Pharm. Res., 2012, 4(3), 1827-1832.
[9]
Vieira, R.H.; Volesky, B. Biosorption: A solution to pollution? Int. Microbiol., 2000, 3(1), 17-24.
[PMID: 10963329]
[PMID: 10963329]
[10]
Arain, M.B.; Ullah, I.; Niaz, A.; Shah, N.; Shah, A.; Hussain, Z.; Tariq, M.; Afridi, H.I.; Baig, J.A.; Kazi, T.G. Evaluation of water quality parameters in drinking water of district Bannu, Pakistan: Multivariate study. Sustain. Water Qual. Ecol., 2014, 3-4, 114-123.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2014.12.005]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2014.12.005]
[11]
Ojo, O.A.; Bakare, S.B.; Babatunde, A.O. Microbial and chemical analysis of potable water in public water supply with in Lagos University, Ojo. Afr. J. Infect. Dis., 2007, 1, 30-35.
[12]
World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for drinking water quality, 3rd ed; IWA Publishing: London, 2006, pp. 121-144.
[13]
Tambe, P.V.; Daswani, P.G.; Mistry, N.F.; Ghadge, A.A.; Antia, N.H. A community-based bacteriological study of quality of drinking-water and its feedback to a rural community in Western Maharashtra, India. J. Health Popul. Nutr., 2008, 26(2), 139-150.
[PMID: 18686548]
[PMID: 18686548]
[14]
Dancer, S.J. How do we assess hospital cleaning? A proposal for microbiological standards for surface hygiene in hospitals. J. Hosp. Infect., 2004, 56(1), 10-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2003.09.017] [PMID: 14706265]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2003.09.017] [PMID: 14706265]
[15]
Boyle, M.A.; O’Donnell, M.J.; Miller, A.; Russell, R.J.; Coleman, D.C. Control of bacterial contamination of washbasin taps and output water using Ecasol: A one-year study. J. Hosp. Infect., 2012, 80(4), 288-292.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2012.01.011] [PMID: 22382277]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2012.01.011] [PMID: 22382277]
[16]
Anstiss, R.G.; Ahmed, M. A conceptual model to be used for community-based drinking-water improvements. J. Health Popul. Nutr., 2006, 24(3), 262-266.
[PMID: 17366766]
[PMID: 17366766]
[17]
Reddy, K.H.P.; Shashikala, V.; Anand, N.; Sandeep, C.; Raju, B.D.; Rao, K.S.R. A study on control of microorganisms in drinking wáter using Ag-Cu/C Catalysis. J. Catal., 2011, 4(1), 47-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876214X01104010047]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876214X01104010047]
[18]
Marzano, M.A.; Ripamonti, B.; Balzaretti, C.M. Monitoring the bacteriological quality of Italian bottled spring water from dispensers. Food Control, 2011, 22(2), 333-336.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.06.014]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.06.014]
[19]
Singh, T.; Kalra, Y.P. Specific conductance method for in situ estimation of total dissolved solids. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 1975, 67(2), 99-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1975.tb02168.x]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1975.tb02168.x]
[20]
Amin, N.; Hussain, A.; Alamzeb, S.; Begum, S. Accumulation of heavy metals in edible parts of vegetables irrigated with waste water and their daily intake to adults and children, District Mardan, Pakistan. Food Chem., 2013, 136(3-4), 1515-1523.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.058] [PMID: 23194556]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.058] [PMID: 23194556]
[21]
Kumar, A.; Bisht, B.S.; Joshi, V.D.; Singh, A.K.; Talwar, A. Physical, chemical and bacteriological study of water from rivers of Uttarakhand. J. Hum. Ecol., 2010, 32(3), 169-173.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2010.11906336]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2010.11906336]
[22]
Khan, N.; Hussain, S.T.; Saboor, A.; Jamila, N. Physicochemical investigation of the drinking water sources from Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Int. J. Water Res. Envir. Eng, 2013, 4(10), 302-313.
[23]
Saravanakumar, K.; Kumar, R.R. Analysis of water quality parameters of groundwater near Ambattur industrial area, Tamil Nadu, India. Indian J. Sci. Technol., 2011, 4(5), 660-662.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2011/v4i5.28]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2011/v4i5.28]
[24]
Pawar, S.; Pulle, J. Studies on physic-chemical parameters in Pethwadaj Dam, Nanded District in Maharashtra, India. J. Aqua. Biol., 2005, 20(2), 123-128.
[25]
Priyanka, T. Water quality assessment for drinking and irrigation purpose. Indian J. Sci. Res., 2017, 13(2), 140-142.
[26]
World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for drinking water quality; 4th Ed; World Health Organization (WHO): Geneva, 2011. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549950
[27]
Khan, N.; Hussain, S.T.; Hussain, J.; Jamila, N.; Ahmed, S.; Ullah, R.; Ullah, Z.; Ali, S.; Saboor, A. Chemical and microbial investigation of drinking water sources from Kohat, Pakistan. Int. J. Phys. Sci., 2012, 7, 4093-5002.
[28]
Kazi, T.G.; Jalbani, N.; Arain, M.B.; Jamali, M.K.; Afridi, H.I.; Sarfraz, R.A.; Shah, A.Q. Toxic metals distribution in different components of Pakistani and imported cigarettes by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer. J. Hazard. Mater., 2009, 163(1), 302-307.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.06.088] [PMID: 18657905]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.06.088] [PMID: 18657905]
[29]
Waseem, A.; Arshad, J.; Iqbal, F.; Sajjad, A.; Mehmood, Z.; Murtaza, G. Pollution status of Pakistan: A retrospective review on heavy metal contamination of water, soil, and vegetables. BioMed Res. Int., 2014, 2014, 1-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/813206] [PMID: 25276818]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/813206] [PMID: 25276818]
[30]
Gonzalez, S.; Lopez-Roldan, R.; Cortina, J.L. Presence of metals in drinking water distribution networks due to pipe material leaching: A review. Toxicol. Environ. Chem., 2013, 95(6), 870-889.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2013.840372]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2013.840372]
[31]
Vipul, B.; Kumar, P.; Singhal, G. Toxicity of heavy metals pollutants in textile mills effluents. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res., 2014, 5, 664-666.
[32]
Griffith, J.F.; Weisberg, S.B.; McGee, C.D. Evaluation of microbial source tracking methods using mixed fecal sources in aqueous test samples. J. Water Health, 2003, 1(4), 141-151.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2003.0017] [PMID: 15382720]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2003.0017] [PMID: 15382720]
[33]
Ahmad, M.; Jamal, A.; Tang, X-W.; Al-Sughaiyer, M.A.; Al-Ahmadi, H.M.; Ahmad, F. Assessing potable water quality and identifying areas of waterborne diarrheal and fluorosis health risks using spatial interpolation in Peshawar, Pakistan. Water, 2020, 12(8), 2163.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12082163]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12082163]
