Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases worldwide. The occult nature of the onset and the uncertainty of the etiology largely impede the development of therapeutic strategies for AD. Previous studies revealed that the disorder of energy metabolism in the brains of AD patients appears far earlier than the typical pathological features of AD, suggesting a tight association between energy crisis and the onset of AD. Energy crisis in the brain is known to be induced by the reductions in glucose uptake and utilization, which may be ascribed to the diminished expressions of cerebral glucose transporters (GLUTs), insulin resistance, mitochondrial dysfunctions, and lactate dysmetabolism. Notably, the energy sensors such as peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor (PPAR), transcription factor EB (TFEB), and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) were shown to be the critical regulators of autophagy, which play important roles in regulating beta-amyloid (Aβ) metabolism, tau phosphorylation, neuroinflammation, iron dynamics, as well as ferroptosis. In this study, we summarized the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms involved in the energy dysmetabolism of AD and discussed the interplays existing between energy crisis, autophagy, and ferroptosis. In addition, we highlighted the potential network in which autophagy may serve as a bridge between energy crisis and ferroptosis in the progression of AD. A deeper understanding of the relationship between energy dysmetabolism and AD may provide new insight into developing strategies for treating AD; meanwhile, the energy crisis in the progression of AD should gain more attention.
Keywords: Alzheimer's disease, energy crisis, autophagy, ferroptosis, iron metabolism, beta-amyloid, tau protein
Graphical Abstract
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41392-019-0063-8] [PMID: 31637009]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2019.09.001] [PMID: 31564456]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2010.07.021] [PMID: 21035308]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199603213341202] [PMID: 8592548]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/path.2697] [PMID: 20225336]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41580-018-0003-4] [PMID: 29618831]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.02.018] [PMID: 29653606]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.308070] [PMID: 33642366]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-150379] [PMID: 26444774]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2020.00047] [PMID: 32210783]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109670] [PMID: 31810131]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25061267] [PMID: 32168835]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.12.009] [PMID: 31982202]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13578-019-0354-3] [PMID: 31749959]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2016.10.003] [PMID: 27829171]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00632] [PMID: 30250423]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2017.11.001] [PMID: 29126071]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23777] [PMID: 27350397]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnen/63.5.418] [PMID: 15198121]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2011.08.016] [PMID: 22152301]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.10.018] [PMID: 26562543]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2017.185] [PMID: 29377010]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/glia.23250] [PMID: 29076603]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.03.035] [PMID: 25996133]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn1998] [PMID: 17952067]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00112] [PMID: 25904838]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2011.149] [PMID: 22027938]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/neup.12639] [PMID: 32037635]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23593] [PMID: 25881750]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.03.008] [PMID: 29617642]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05056.x] [PMID: 17004932]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jnr.25015] [PMID: 35085408]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0762-10.2010] [PMID: 21068334]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2018.19] [PMID: 29515192]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0756-16.2017] [PMID: 28314814]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-022-01093-7] [PMID: 35726058]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.825816] [PMID: 35087428]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105766] [PMID: 35584728]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.00493] [PMID: 32265936]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2019.06.005] [PMID: 31257151]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jnc.14267] [PMID: 29205357]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2021.12.001] [PMID: 34996673]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-020-05104-9] [PMID: 32030470]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2019.04.007] [PMID: 31002894]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.001] [PMID: 28987936]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2016.12.022] [PMID: 28178565]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms17122093] [PMID: 27983603]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2015.04.010] [PMID: 26210630]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12031-019-01406-9] [PMID: 31643037]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.08.005] [PMID: 19679110]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db16-0861] [PMID: 27999108]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00702-010-0456-x] [PMID: 20697751]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms19123716] [PMID: 30467274]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht004] [PMID: 23349223]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1303346110] [PMID: 23898179]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.02.034] [PMID: 28249730]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.1133] [PMID: 11558792]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/glia.23248] [PMID: 29110344]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.911220] [PMID: 35651528]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11357-022-00618-z] [PMID: 35798912]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.877281] [PMID: 35493938]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3987-10.2010] [PMID: 21159973]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.04.081] [PMID: 24814213]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2021.101503] [PMID: 34751136]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0271678X17697989] [PMID: 28276944]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12060722] [PMID: 35741606]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2018.01.031] [PMID: 29876246]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2020.00222] [PMID: 33005142]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11064-022-03538-8] [PMID: 35089504]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.121.263194] [PMID: 35649653]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.286.17.2120] [PMID: 11694153]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/RLU.0000000000000547] [PMID: 25199063]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-215107] [PMID: 35848016]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15667-9] [PMID: 35817836]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ejn.15734] [PMID: 35678770]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2017.07.004] [PMID: 28709938]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00259-012-2102-3] [PMID: 22441582]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00002] [PMID: 29403354]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.08.016] [PMID: 26365177]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/nbdi.2001.0460] [PMID: 11848685]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cne.23667] [PMID: 25159005]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(94)90202-X] [PMID: 7953673]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2021.154869] [PMID: 34425073]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108685] [PMID: 34175325]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079977] [PMID: 24244584]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.05.002] [PMID: 29777753]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12974-021-02244-6] [PMID: 34465358]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bpa.12704] [PMID: 30661261]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2017.10.017] [PMID: 29061364]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03132.x] [PMID: 15934951]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2022.02.013] [PMID: 35303422]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2018.06.019] [PMID: 30100233]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2017.10.035] [PMID: 29102777]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.3966] [PMID: 25730668]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2013.1404] [PMID: 23546527]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-160841] [PMID: 27858715]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1700-16.2016] [PMID: 27881773]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db13-1954] [PMID: 24931033]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2017.04.005] [PMID: 28400135]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000487641] [PMID: 29439247]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2019.01.008] [PMID: 30665005]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.17116] [PMID: 28467789]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.11.043] [PMID: 30463045]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12264-016-0034-9] [PMID: 27207326]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2101425] [PMID: 35866515]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41421-022-00430-1] [PMID: 35790738]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2020.104707] [PMID: 32092326]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.648636] [PMID: 33935751]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gendis.2021.12.025] [PMID: 35685456]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2022.105311] [PMID: 35218870]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13023-022-02385-8] [PMID: 35804402]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10557-022-07320-4] [PMID: 35150384]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2021.12.012] [PMID: 35755273]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.04.002] [PMID: 18479783]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1582-4934.2011.01318.x] [PMID: 21435176]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40263-019-00658-8] [PMID: 31410665]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00074] [PMID: 29593495]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5213/inj.1938036.018] [PMID: 30832462]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006617] [PMID: 19672297]
[PMID: 28474567]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0197-4580(01)00314-1] [PMID: 11959398]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11064-006-9235-3] [PMID: 17342416]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2018.04.021] [PMID: 29709515]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00221-018-5341-0] [PMID: 30056470]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41583-019-0132-6] [PMID: 30737462]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12929-017-0379-z] [PMID: 28927401]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.07.014] [PMID: 31303501]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2015.1091141] [PMID: 26389781]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-019-03009-4] [PMID: 30683981]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006392] [PMID: 30161133]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12035-019-01863-8] [PMID: 31916030]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2015.11.002] [PMID: 26592660]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108092] [PMID: 32877674]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.09.006] [PMID: 34530075]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10072-015-2087-3] [PMID: 25647291]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2014-308577] [PMID: 25121572]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00259-016-3417-2] [PMID: 27221635]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.03.122] [PMID: 35366540]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10529-020-02818-z] [PMID: 31989342]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2020.00017] [PMID: 32116650]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2019.04.019] [PMID: 31605901]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08829-3] [PMID: 30952864]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.01.019] [PMID: 31982508]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.188920] [PMID: 27528206]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ddr.21605] [PMID: 31782539]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2019.09.010] [PMID: 31634675]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gad.305441.117] [PMID: 28903979]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00287] [PMID: 31545891]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.05.001] [PMID: 28502807]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2016.04.005] [PMID: 27083590]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/4321714] [PMID: 30116482]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1066-19.2019] [PMID: 31744863]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cne.24929] [PMID: 32323319]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.008] [PMID: 20541250]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2018.1438807] [PMID: 29862881]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1567205016666191023102422] [PMID: 31642777]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.02.016] [PMID: 32057360]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/acel.12692] [PMID: 29024336]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-130428] [PMID: 23948933]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00048] [PMID: 29441022]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12031-018-1174-3] [PMID: 30267382]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M305838200] [PMID: 14612456]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddx284] [PMID: 29016855]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2012.10.006] [PMID: 23159640]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2011-101989] [PMID: 21422527]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncb2012] [PMID: 20098416]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M702824200] [PMID: 17580304]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01631-6] [PMID: 35665766]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2020.1749490] [PMID: 32249716]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddy042] [PMID: 29408999]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-190835] [PMID: 31771065]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/path.5436] [PMID: 32207855]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15252/embj.201899360] [PMID: 30538104]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.7861] [PMID: 26943044]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cns.13216] [PMID: 31503421]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136313] [PMID: 26308941]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M116.766584] [PMID: 28028177]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-143162] [PMID: 25854934]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2013.08.042] [PMID: 24095740]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cpr.12427] [PMID: 29292543]
[PMID: 32075509]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.08.018] [PMID: 31585361]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12976-020-00119-6] [PMID: 32102666]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.09.008] [PMID: 30219731]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2019.07.006] [PMID: 32322468]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2020.1718384] [PMID: 31958036]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells8050488] [PMID: 31121890]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.01.022] [PMID: 28279350]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-190180] [PMID: 31256134]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddi458] [PMID: 16368705]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddp367] [PMID: 19654187]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/aws143] [PMID: 22689910]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms19051360] [PMID: 29734651]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120352] [PMID: 25781952]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.11.014] [PMID: 30572013]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13024-019-0354-0] [PMID: 31906970]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048243] [PMID: 23133622]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b05947] [PMID: 31722531]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00629] [PMID: 31275108]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41392-020-0145-7] [PMID: 32296063]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.695712] [PMID: 34248643]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2021.629891] [PMID: 33708103]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcn.2019.103390] [PMID: 31276749]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12035-018-1026-8] [PMID: 29611102]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-37215-0] [PMID: 30696869]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-179944] [PMID: 29865061]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.29571] [PMID: 31985039]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9589-5_5] [PMID: 31456206]
[PMID: 31654670]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.11.009] [PMID: 25575693]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12031-018-1155-6] [PMID: 30145632]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00238] [PMID: 30930742]
[PMID: 31505959]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.01443] [PMID: 32063824]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117425] [PMID: 32057904]
[PMID: 31820165]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.094] [PMID: 30057310]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2018.1513758] [PMID: 30145930]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2019.1659623] [PMID: 31441366]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819728116] [PMID: 30718432]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00702-019-02138-1] [PMID: 31912279]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00811] [PMID: 31447633]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2020.101494] [PMID: 32199332]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells8020198] [PMID: 30813496]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12035-018-1403-3] [PMID: 30406908]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2019.07.037] [PMID: 31377127]
[PMID: 32186434]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-180202] [PMID: 29914035]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.12.017] [PMID: 31027873]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1913042117] [PMID: 32127481]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.01140] [PMID: 31736687]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13063-019-3928-9] [PMID: 31898518]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2015.08.002] [PMID: 26306884]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146697] [PMID: 32014530]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13195-021-00853-0] [PMID: 34118986]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114578] [PMID: 33895160]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101180] [PMID: 33556642]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ph14090890] [PMID: 34577590]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/7420796] [PMID: 28656154]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40268-020-00296-2] [PMID: 32077057]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11571-020-09571-z] [PMID: 32399074]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.314320] [PMID: 34100458]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1567205015666181031145045] [PMID: 30381076]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2022.111812] [PMID: 35476966]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12035-018-1231-5] [PMID: 30073505]
[PMID: 34101779]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-05165-3] [PMID: 35079029]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneurol.2011.233] [PMID: 21911655]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.1840] [PMID: 32568367]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41556-020-0461-8] [PMID: 32029897]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23723556.2020.1761242] [PMID: 32944623]