Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Neuropharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-159X
ISSN (Online): 1875-6190

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Epilepsy in Cerebrovascular Diseases: A Narrative Review

Author(s): Sabrina Neri, Sara Gasparini, Angelo Pascarella, Domenico Santangelo, Vittoria Cianci, Anna Mammì, Michele Lo Giudice, Edoardo Ferlazzo and Umberto Aguglia*

Volume 21, Issue 8, 2023

Published on: 02 February, 2023

Page: [1634 - 1645] Pages: 12

DOI: 10.2174/1570159X20666220706113925

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Epilepsy is a common comorbidity of cerebrovascular disease and an increasing socioeconomic burden.

Objective: We aimed to provide an updated comprehensive review on the state of the art about seizures and epilepsy in stroke, cerebral haemorrhage, and leukoaraiosis.

Methods: We selected English-written articles on epilepsy, stroke, and small vessel disease up until December 2021. We reported the most recent data about epidemiology, pathophysiology, prognosis, and management for each disease.

Results: The main predictors for both ES and PSE are the severity and extent of stroke, the presence of cortical involvement and hemorrhagic transformation, while PSE is also predicted by younger age at stroke onset. Few data exist on physiopathology and seizure semiology, and no randomized controlled trial has been performed to standardize the therapeutic approach to post-stroke epilepsy.

Conclusion: Some aspects of ES and PSE have been well explored, particularly epidemiology and risk factors. On the contrary, few data exist on physiopathology, and existing evidence is mainly based on studies on animal models. Little is also known about seizure semiology, which may also be difficult to interpret by non-epileptologists. Moreover, the therapeutic approach needs standardization as regards indications and the choice of specific ASMs. Future research may help to better elucidate these aspects.

Keywords: seizures, epilepsy, cerebrovascular disease, stroke, post-stroke epilepsy, cerebral haemorrhage, leukoaraiosis

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Hauser, W.A.; Annegers, J.F.; Kurland, L.T. Incidence of epilepsy and unprovoked seizures in Rochester, Minnesota: 1935-1984. Epilepsia, 1993, 34(3), 453-468.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1993.tb02586.x] [PMID: 8504780]
[2]
Koubeissi, M. Seizures worsen stroke outcome: New evidence from a large sample. Epilepsy Curr., 2015, 15(1), 30-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5698/1535-7597-15.1.30] [PMID: 25678885]
[3]
Beghi, E.; Carpio, A.; Forsgren, L.; Hesdorffer, D.C.; Malmgren, K.; Sander, J.W.; Tomson, T.; Hauser, W.A. Recommendation for a definition of acute symptomatic seizure. Epilepsia, 2010, 51(4), 671-675.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02285.x] [PMID: 19732133]
[4]
Ferlazzo, E.; Gasparini, S.; Beghi, E.; Sueri, C.; Russo, E.; Leo, A.; Labate, A.; Gambardella, A.; Belcastro, V.; Striano, P.; Paciaroni, M.; Pisani, L.R.; Aguglia, U. Epilepsy in cerebrovascular diseases: Review of experimental and clinical data with meta-analysis of risk factors. Epilepsia, 2016, 57(8), 1205-1214.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/epi.13448] [PMID: 27381481]
[5]
Pezzini, A.; Grassi, M.; Del Zotto, E.; Giossi, A.; Volonghi, I.; Costa, P.; Poli, L.; Morotti, A.; Gamba, M.; Ritelli, M.; Colombi, M.; Padovani, A. Complications of acute stroke and the occurrence of early seizures. Cerebrovasc. Dis., 2013, 35(5), 444-450.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000348704] [PMID: 23735811]
[6]
Wang, J.Z.; Vyas, M.V.; Saposnik, G.; Burneo, J.G. Incidence and management of seizures after ischemic stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology, 2017, 89(12), 1220-1228.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000004407] [PMID: 28835405]
[7]
Procaccianti, G.; Zaniboni, A.; Rondelli, F.; Crisci, M.; Sacquegna, T. Seizures in acute stroke: Incidence, risk factors and prognosis. Neuroepidemiology, 2012, 39(1), 45-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000338374] [PMID: 22777596]
[8]
Leone, M.A.; Tonini, M.C.; Bogliun, G.; Gionco, M.; Tassinari, T.; Bottacchi, E.; Beghi, E. Risk factors for a first epileptic seizure after stroke: A case control study. J. Neurol. Sci., 2009, 277(1-2), 138-142.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2008.11.004] [PMID: 19059614]
[9]
Bladin, C.F.; Alexandrov, A.V.; Bellavance, A.; Bornstein, N.; Chambers, B.; Coté, R.; Lebrun, L.; Pirisi, A.; Norris, J.W. Seizures after stroke: A prospective multicenter study. Arch. Neurol., 2000, 57(11), 1617-1622.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.57.11.1617] [PMID: 11074794]
[10]
Burn, J.; Dennis, M.; Bamford, J.; Sandercock, P.; Wade, D.; Warlow, C. Epileptic seizures after a first stroke: The oxfordshire community stroke project. BMJ, 1997, 315(7122), 1582-1587.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7122.1582] [PMID: 9437276]
[11]
Alme, K.N.; Engelsen, B.A.; Naik, M.; Naess, H. Identifying patients at risk of acute symptomatic seizure after ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol. Scand., 2017, 136(3), 265-271.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ane.12721] [PMID: 28025821]
[12]
Lamy, C.; Domigo, V.; Semah, F.; Arquizan, C.; Trystram, D.; Coste, J.; Mas, J.L. Early and late seizures after cryptogenic ischemic stroke in young adults. Neurology, 2003, 60(3), 400-404.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.60.3.400] [PMID: 12578918]
[13]
Myint, P.K.; Staufenberg, E.F.; Sabanathan, K. Post-stroke seizure and post-stroke epilepsy. Postgrad. Med. J., 2006, 82(971), 568-572.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2005.041426] [PMID: 16954451]
[14]
Rumbach, L.; Sablot, D.; Berger, E.; Tatu, L.; Vuillier, F.; Moulin, T. Status epilepticus in stroke: Report on a hospital-based stroke cohort. Neurology, 2000, 54(2), 350-354.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.54.2.350] [PMID: 10668695]
[15]
Velioğlu, S.K.; Ozmenoğlu, M.; Boz, C.; Alioğlu, Z. Status epilepticus after stroke. Stroke, 2001, 32(5), 1169-1172.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.32.5.1169] [PMID: 11340227]
[16]
Camilo, O.; Goldstein, L.B. Seizures and epilepsy after ischemic stroke. Stroke, 2004, 35(7), 1769-1775.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000130989.17100.96] [PMID: 15166395]
[17]
Calabresi, P.; Cupini, L.M.; Centonze, D.; Pisani, F.; Bernardi, G. Antiepileptic drugs as a possible neuroprotective strategy in brain ischemia. Ann. Neurol., 2003, 53(6), 693-702.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.10603] [PMID: 12783414]
[18]
Tanaka, T.; Ihara, M. Post-stroke epilepsy. Neurochem. Int., 2017, 107, 219-228.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2017.02.002] [PMID: 28202284]
[19]
Reddy, D.S.; Bhimani, A.; Kuruba, R.; Park, M.J.; Sohrabji, F. Prospects of modeling poststroke epileptogenesis. J. Neurosci. Res., 2017, 95(4), 1000-1016.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23836] [PMID: 27452210]
[20]
Szydlowska, K.; Tymianski, M. Calcium, ischemia and excitotoxicity. Cell Calcium, 2010, 47(2), 122-129.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2010.01.003] [PMID: 20167368]
[21]
Lee, J-M.; Zipfel, G.J.; Choi, D.W. The changing landscape of ischaemic brain injury mechanisms. Nature, 1999, 399(6738), (Suppl.), A7-A14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/399a007] [PMID: 10392575]
[22]
Gupta, S.R.; Naheedy, M.H.; Elias, D.; Rubino, F.A. Postinfarction seizures. A clinical study. Stroke, 1988, 19(12), 1477-1481.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.19.12.1477] [PMID: 3201504]
[23]
Chan, S-A.; Reid, K.H.; Schurr, A.; Miller, J.J.; Iyer, V.; Tseng, M.T. Fosphenytoin reduces hippocampal neuronal damage in rat following transient global ischemia. Acta Neurochir. (Wien), 1998, 140(2), 175-180.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s007010050080] [PMID: 10398998]
[24]
Markind, J.E. Topiramate: A new antiepileptic drug. Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm., 1998, 55(6), 554-562.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/55.6.554] [PMID: 9544331]
[25]
Edmonds, H.L., Jr; Jiang, Y.D.; Zhang, P.Y.; Shank, R. Topiramate as a neuroprotectant in a rat model of global ischemia-induced neurodegeneration. Life Sci., 2001, 69(19), 2265-2277.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0024-3205(01)01306-6] [PMID: 11669469]
[26]
Noda, Y.; Mori, A.; Packer, L. Zonisamide inhibits nitric oxide synthase activity induced by N-methyl-D-aspartate and buthionine sulfoximine in the rat hippocampus. Res. Commun. Mol. Pathol. Pharmacol., 1999, 105(1-2), 23-33.
[PMID: 10850366]
[27]
Horn, J.; Limburg, M. Calcium antagonists for ischemic stroke: A systematic review. Stroke, 2001, 32(2), 570-576.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.32.2.570] [PMID: 11157199]
[28]
Smith, S.E.; Meldrum, B.S. Cerebroprotective effect of lamotrigine after focal ischemia in rats. Stroke, 1995, 26(1), 117-121.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.26.1.117] [PMID: 7839380]
[29]
Traystman, R.J.; Klaus, J.A.; DeVries, A.C.; Shaivitz, A.B.; Hurn, P.D. Anticonvulsant lamotrigine administered on reperfusion fails to improve experimental stroke outcomes. Stroke, 2001, 32(3), 783-787.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.32.3.783] [PMID: 11239202]
[30]
Treiman, D.M. GABAergic mechanisms in epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2001, 42(Suppl. 3), 8-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1528-1157.2001.042suppl.3008.x] [PMID: 11520315]
[31]
Schwartz-Bloom, R.D.; Miller, K.A.; Evenson, D.A.; Crain, B.J.; Nadler, J.V. Benzodiazepines protect hippocampal neurons from degeneration after transient cerebral ischemia: An ultrastructural study. Neuroscience, 2000, 98(3), 471-484.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00144-5] [PMID: 10869841]
[32]
Olsen, T.S. Post-stroke epilepsy. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep., 2001, 3(4), 340-344.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-001-0029-4] [PMID: 11389801]
[33]
Reith, J.; Jørgensen, H.S.; Nakayama, H.; Raaschou, H.O.; Olsen, T.S. Seizures in acute stroke: Predictors and prognostic significance. The copenhagen stroke study. Stroke, 1997, 28(8), 1585-1589.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.28.8.1585] [PMID: 9259753]
[34]
Fisher, R.S.; Acevedo, C.; Arzimanoglou, A.; Bogacz, A.; Cross, J.H.; Elger, C.E.; Engel, J., Jr; Forsgren, L.; French, J.A.; Glynn, M.; Hesdorffer, D.C.; Lee, B.I.; Mathern, G.W.; Moshé, S.L.; Perucca, E.; Scheffer, I.E.; Tomson, T.; Watanabe, M.; Wiebe, S. ILAE official report: A practical clinical definition of epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2014, 55(4), 475-482.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/epi.12550] [PMID: 24730690]
[35]
Zou, S.; Wu, X.; Zhu, B.; Yu, J.; Yang, B.; Shi, J. The pooled incidence of post-stroke seizure in 102 008 patients. Top. Stroke Rehabil., 2015, 22(6), 460-467.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1074935715Z.00000000062] [PMID: 25920619]
[36]
Assis, T.M.R.; Bacellar, A.; Costa, G.; Nascimento, O.J.M. Mortality predictors of epilepsy and epileptic seizures among hospitalized elderly. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 2015, 73(6), 510-515.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0004-282X20150043] [PMID: 26083887]
[37]
Hesdorffer, D.C.; Benn, E.K.T.; Cascino, G.D.; Hauser, W.A. Is a first acute symptomatic seizure epilepsy? Mortality and risk for recurrent seizure. Epilepsia, 2009, 50(5), 1102-1108.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01945.x] [PMID: 19374657]
[38]
Graham, N.S.N.; Crichton, S.; Koutroumanidis, M.; Wolfe, C.D.A.; Rudd, A.G. Incidence and associations of poststroke epilepsy: The prospective South London stroke register. Stroke, 2013, 44(3), 605-611.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.000220] [PMID: 23370202]
[39]
Roivainen, R.; Haapaniemi, E.; Putaala, J.; Kaste, M.; Tatlisumak, T. Young adult ischaemic stroke related acute symptomatic and late seizures: Risk factors. Eur. J. Neurol., 2013, 20(9), 1247-1255.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ene.12157] [PMID: 23581284]
[40]
Godfrey, J.W.; Roberts, M.A.; Caird, F.I. Epileptic seizures in the elderly: II. Diagnostic problems. Age Ageing, 1982, 11(1), 29-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ageing/11.1.29] [PMID: 6803529]
[41]
Conrad, J.; Pawlowski, M.; Dogan, M.; Kovac, S.; Ritter, M.A.; Evers, S. Seizures after cerebrovascular events: Risk factors and clinical features. Seizure, 2013, 22(4), 275-282.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2013.01.014] [PMID: 23410847]
[42]
Krakow, K.; Sitzer, M.; Rosenow, F.; Steinmetz, H.; Foerch, C. Predictors of acute poststroke seizures. Cerebrovasc. Dis., 2010, 30(6), 584-589.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000319777] [PMID: 20948201]
[43]
Gasparini, S.; Ascoli, M.; Brigo, F.; Cianci, V.; Branca, D.; Arcudi, L.; Aguglia, U.; Belcastro, V.; Ferlazzo, E. Younger age at stroke onset but not thrombolytic treatment predicts poststroke epilepsy: An updated meta-analysis. Epilepsy Behav., 2020, 104(Pt B), 106540.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.106540] [PMID: 31677999]
[44]
So, E.L.; Annegers, J.F.; Hauser, W.A.; O’Brien, P.C.; Whisnant, J.P. Population-based study of seizure disorders after cerebral infarction. Neurology, 1996, 46(2), 350-355.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.46.2.350] [PMID: 8614493]
[45]
Pitkänen, A.; Roivainen, R.; Lukasiuk, K. Development of epilepsy after ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol., 2016, 15(2), 185-197.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00248-3] [PMID: 26597090]
[46]
Zhang, C.; Wang, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, J.G.; Hu, W.; Ge, M.; Zhang, K.; Shao, X. Risk factors for post-stroke seizures: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsy Res., 2014, 108(10), 1806-1816.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2014.09.030] [PMID: 25454500]
[47]
de Greef, B.T.A.; Schreuder, F.H.B.M.; Vlooswijk, M.C.G.; Schreuder, A.H.; Rooyer, F.A.; van Oostenbrugge, R.J.; Rouhl, R.P. Early seizures after intracerebral hemorrhage predict drug-resistant epilepsy. J. Neurol., 2015, 262(3), 541-546.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-014-7592-4] [PMID: 25476693]
[48]
Silverman, I.E.; Restrepo, L.; Mathews, G.C. Poststroke seizures. Arch. Neurol., 2002, 59(2), 195-201.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.59.2.195] [PMID: 11843689]
[49]
Küçükkaya, B.; Aker, R.; Yüksel, M.; Onat, F.; Yalçin, A.S. Low dose MK-801 protects against iron-induced oxidative changes in a rat model of focal epilepsy. Brain Res., 1998, 788(1-2), 133-136.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(97)01544-8] [PMID: 9554983]
[50]
Raabe, A.; Schmitz, A.K.; Pernhorst, K.; Grote, A.; von der Brelie, C.; Urbach, H.; Friedman, A.; Becker, A.J.; Elger, C.E.; Niehusmann, P. Cliniconeuropathologic correlations show astroglial albumin storage as a common factor in epileptogenic vascular lesions. Epilepsia, 2012, 53(3), 539-548.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03405.x] [PMID: 22372630]
[51]
Faught, E.; Peters, D.; Bartolucci, A.; Moore, L.; Miller, P.C. Seizures after primary intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology, 1989, 39(8), 1089-1093.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.39.8.1089] [PMID: 2761703]
[52]
Haapaniemi, E.; Strbian, D.; Rossi, C.; Putaala, J.; Sipi, T.; Mustanoja, S.; Sairanen, T.; Curtze, S.; Satopää, J.; Roivainen, R.; Kaste, M.; Cordonnier, C.; Tatlisumak, T.; Meretoja, A. The CAVE score for predicting late seizures after intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke, 2014, 45(7), 1971-1976.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.004686] [PMID: 24876089]
[53]
Yang, H.; Song, Z.; Yang, G-P. The ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism affects post-stroke epilepsy susceptibility and plasma 4-HNE levels. PLoS One, 2014, 9, 109634.
[54]
Zhang, B.; Chen, M.; Yang, H.; Wu, T.; Song, C.; Guo, R. Evidence for involvement of the CD40/CD40L system in post-stroke epilepsy. Neurosci. Lett., 2014, 567, 6-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2014.03.003] [PMID: 24657679]
[55]
Wiśniewski, A.; Jatužis, D. Multifactorial predictors of late epileptic seizures related to stroke: Evaluation of the current possibilities of stratification based on existing prognostic models—A comprehensive review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 2021, 18(3), 1079.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031079] [PMID: 33530431]
[56]
Heuts-van Raak, L.; Lodder, J.; Kessels, F. Late seizures following a first symptomatic brain infarct are related to large infarcts involving the posterior area around the lateral sulcus. Seizure, 1996, 5(3), 185-194.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1059-1311(96)80034-3] [PMID: 8902919]
[57]
Chen, Z.; Churilov, L.; Koome, M.; Chen, Z.; Naylor, J.; Kwan, P.; Yan, B. Post-Stroke seizures is associated with low Alberta stroke program early CT score. Cerebrovasc. Dis., 2017, 43(5-6), 259-265.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000458449] [PMID: 28259886]
[58]
Cheung, C-M.; Tsoi, T-H.; Au-Yeung, M.; Tang, A.S-Y. Epileptic seizure after stroke in Chinese patients. J. Neurol., 2003, 250(7), 839-843.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-003-1091-3] [PMID: 12883927]
[59]
Wang, G.; Jia, H.; Chen, C.; Lang, S.; Liu, X.; Xia, C.; Sun, Y.; Zhang, J. Analysis of risk factors for first seizure after stroke in Chinese patients. BioMed Res. Int., 2013, 2013, 702871.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/702871] [PMID: 24298553]
[60]
Galovic, M.; Döhler, N.; Erdélyi-Canavese, B.; Felbecker, A.; Siebel, P.; Conrad, J.; Evers, S.; Winklehner, M.; von Oertzen, T.J.; Haring, H.P.; Serafini, A.; Gregoraci, G.; Valente, M.; Janes, F.; Gigli, G.L.; Keezer, M.R.; Duncan, J.S.; Sander, J.W.; Koepp, M.J.; Tettenborn, B. Prediction of late seizures after ischaemic stroke with a novel prognostic model (the SeLECT score): A multivariable prediction model development and validation study. Lancet Neurol., 2018, 17(2), 143-152.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30404-0] [PMID: 29413315]
[61]
Bentes, C.; Martins, H.; Peralta, A.R.; Morgado, C.; Casimiro, C.; Franco, A.C.; Fonseca, A.C.; Geraldes, R.; Canhão, P.; Pinho, E. Melo, T.; Paiva, T.; Ferro, J.M. Early EEG predicts poststroke epilepsy. Epilepsia Open, 2018, 3(2), 203-212.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/epi4.12103] [PMID: 29881799]
[62]
De Reuck, J.; Goethals, M.; Claeys, I.; Van Maele, G.; De Clerck, M. EEG findings after a cerebral territorial infarct in patients who develop early- and late-onset seizures. Eur. Neurol., 2006, 55(4), 209-213.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000093871] [PMID: 16772712]
[63]
Onder, H.; Arsava, E.M.; Topcuoglu, M.A.; Dericioglu, N. Do Video-EEG monitoring findings in ICU patients with acute stroke predict development of seizures and survival during follow-up? Clin. EEG Neurosci., 2017, 48(6), 417-421.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1550059417727225] [PMID: 28844159]
[64]
Qian, Z.; Gilbert, M.E.; Colicos, M.A.; Kandel, E.R.; Kuhl, D. Tissue-plasminogen activator is induced as an immediate-early gene during seizure, kindling and long-term potentiation. Nature, 1993, 361(6411), 453-457.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/361453a0] [PMID: 8429885]
[65]
Tsirka, S.E.; Gualandris, A.; Amaral, D.G.; Strickland, S. Excitotoxin-induced neuronal degeneration and seizure are mediated by tissue plasminogen activator. Nature, 1995, 377(6547), 340-344.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/377340a0] [PMID: 7566088]
[66]
Brigo, F.; Schneider, M.; Wagenpfeil, G.; Ragoschke-Schumm, A.; Fousse, M.; Holzhoffer, C.; Nardone, R.; Faßbender, K.; Lochner, P. Intravenous thrombolysis with tPA and cortical involvement increase the risk of early poststroke seizures: Results of a casecontrol study. Epilepsy Behav., 2020, 104(Pt B), 106312.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.04.056] [PMID: 31182396]
[67]
Belcastro, V.; Brigo, F.; Ferlazzo, E.; Gasparini, S.; Mastroianni, G.; Cianci, V.; Lattanzi, S.; Silvestrini, M.; Versino, M.; Banfi, P.; Carimati, F.; Grampa, G.; Lochner, P.; Gigli, G.L.; Bax, F.; Merlino, G.; Valente, M.; Vidale, S.; Aguglia, U. Incidence of early poststroke seizures during reperfusion therapies in patients with acute ischemic stroke: An observational prospective study: (TESI study: “Trombolisi/Trombectomia e crisi Epilettiche precoci nello Stroke Ischemico”). Epilepsy Behav., 2020, 104(Pt B), 106476.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.106476] [PMID: 31431399]
[68]
Anadani, M.; Lekoubou, A.; Almallouhi, E.; Alawieh, A.; Chatterjee, A.; Vargas, J.; Spiotta, A.M. Incidence, predictors, and outcome of early seizures after mechanical thrombectomy. J. Neurol. Sci., 2019, 396, 235-239.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2018.11.033] [PMID: 30529800]
[69]
Eriksson, H.; Löwhagen, H.P.; Rentzos, A.; Pujol-Calderón, F.; Karlsson, J.E.; Höglund, K.; Blennow, K.; Zetterberg, H.; Rosengren, L.; Zelano, J. Acute symptomatic seizures and epilepsy after mechanical thrombectomy. Epilepsy Behav., 2020, 104(Pt B), 106520.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.106520] [PMID: 31526644]
[70]
Gilad, R.; Lampl, Y.; Eilam, A.; Boaz, M.; Loyberboim, M. SPECT-DTPA as a tool for evaluating the blood-brain barrier in post-stroke seizures. J. Neurol., 2012, 259(10), 2041-2044.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-012-6445-2] [PMID: 22323212]
[71]
Swissa, E.; Serlin, Y.; Vazana, U.; Prager, O.; Friedman, A. Bloodbrain barrier dysfunction in status epileptics: Mechanisms and role in epileptogenesis. Epilepsy Behav., 2019, 101(Pt B), 106285.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.04.038] [PMID: 31711869]
[72]
Zlokovic, B.V. The blood-brain barrier in health and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. Neuron, 2008, 57(2), 178-201.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.01.003] [PMID: 18215617]
[73]
Friedman, A. Blood-brain barrier dysfunction, status epilepticus, seizures, and epilepsy: A puzzle of a chicken and egg? Epilepsia, 2011, 52(Suppl. 8), 19-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03227.x] [PMID: 21967353]
[74]
Marek, M.; Horyniecki, M.; Frączek, M.; Kluczewska, E. Leukoaraiosis - new concepts and modern imaging. Pol. J. Radiol., 2018, 83, e76-e81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/pjr.2018.74344] [PMID: 30038682]
[75]
Rolls, A.; Shechter, R.; Schwartz, M. The bright side of the glial scar in CNS repair. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 2009, 10(3), 235-241.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2591] [PMID: 19229242]
[76]
Wang, H.; Song, G.; Chuang, H.; Chiu, C.; Abdelmaksoud, A.; Ye, Y.; Zhao, L. Portrait of glial scar in neurological diseases. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 2018, 31, 2058738418801406.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2058738418801406] [PMID: 30309271]
[77]
Robel, S. Astroglial scarring and seizures: A cell biological perspective on epilepsy. Neuroscientist, 2017, 23(2), 152-168.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073858416645498] [PMID: 27118807]
[78]
Kamp, M.A.; Dibué, M.; Schneider, T.; Steiger, H-J.; Hänggi, D. Calcium and potassium channels in experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage and transient global ischemia. Stroke Res. Treat., 2012, 2012, 382146.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/382146] [PMID: 23251831]
[79]
Liu, X.S.; Zhang, Z.G.; Zhang, R.L.; Gregg, S.; Morris, D.C.; Wang, Y.; Chopp, M. Stroke induces gene profile changes associated with neurogenesis and angiogenesis in adult subventricular zone progenitor cells. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2007, 27(3), 564-574.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600371] [PMID: 16835628]
[80]
Gubern, C.; Camós, S.; Ballesteros, I.; Rodríguez, R.; Romera, V.G.; Cañadas, R.; Lizasoain, I.; Moro, M.A.; Serena, J.; Mallolas, J.; Castellanos, M. miRNA expression is modulated over time after focal ischaemia: Up-regulation of miR-347 promotes neuronal apoptosis. FEBS J., 2013, 280(23), 6233-6246.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/febs.12546] [PMID: 24112606]
[81]
Lossius, M.I.; Rønning, O.M.; Slapø, G.D.; Mowinckel, P.; Gjerstad, L. Poststroke epilepsy: Occurrence and predictors-a long-term prospective controlled study (Akershus stroke study). Epilepsia, 2005, 46(8), 1246-1251.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2005.57904.x] [PMID: 16060935]
[82]
Semah, F.; Picot, M-C.; Adam, C.; Broglin, D.; Arzimanoglou, A.; Bazin, B.; Cavalcanti, D.; Baulac, M. Is the underlying cause of epilepsy a major prognostic factor for recurrence? Neurology, 1998, 51(5), 1256-1262.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.51.5.1256] [PMID: 9818842]
[83]
Stephen, L.J.; Kwan, P.; Brodie, M.J. Does the cause of localisation-related epilepsy influence the response to antiepileptic drug treatment? Epilepsia, 2001, 42(3), 357-362.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1528-1157.2001.29000.x] [PMID: 11442153]
[84]
Lattanzi, S.; Rinaldi, C.; Cagnetti, C.; Foschi, N.; Norata, D.; Broggi, S.; Rocchi, C.; Silvestrini, M. Predictors of pharmaco-resistance in patients with post-stroke epilepsy. Brain Sci., 2021, 11(4), 418.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11040418] [PMID: 33810310]
[85]
Burneo, J.G.; Antaya, T.C.; Allen, B.N.; Belisle, A.; Shariff, S.Z.; Saposnik, G. The risk of new-onset epilepsy and refractory epilepsy in older adult stroke survivors. Neurology, 2019, 93(6), e568-e577.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000007895] [PMID: 31292225]
[86]
Redecker, C.; Wang, W.; Fritschy, J-M.; Witte, O.W. Widespread and long-lasting alterations in GABA(A)-receptor subtypes after focal cortical infarcts in rats: Mediation by NMDA-dependent processes. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2002, 22(12), 1463-1475.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.WCB.0000034149.72481.BD] [PMID: 12468891]
[87]
Tang, F.; Hartz, A.M.S.; Bauer, B. Drug-resistant epilepsy: Multiple hypotheses, few answers. Front. Neurol., 2017, 8, 301.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2017.00301] [PMID: 28729850]
[88]
Brigo, F.; Lattanzi, S.; Zelano, J.; Bragazzi, N.L.; Belcastro, V.; Nardone, R.; Trinka, E. Randomized controlled trials of antiepileptic drugs for the treatment of post-stroke seizures: A systematic review with network meta-analysis. Seizure, 2018, 61, 57-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2018.08.001] [PMID: 30096625]
[89]
Brodie, M.J.; Overstall, P.W.; Giorgi, L. Multicentre, double-blind, randomised comparison between lamotrigine and carbamazepine in elderly patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy. Epilepsy Res., 1999, 37(1), 81-87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-1211(99)00039-X] [PMID: 10515178]
[90]
Gilad, R.; Sadeh, M.; Rapoport, A.; Dabby, R.; Boaz, M.; Lampl, Y. Monotherapy of lamotrigine versus carbamazepine in patients with poststroke seizure. Clin. Neuropharmacol., 2007, 30(4), 189-195.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WNF.0b013e3180333069] [PMID: 17762314]
[91]
Belcastro, V.; Costa, C.; Galletti, F.; Autuori, A.; Pierguidi, L.; Pisani, F.; Calabresi, P.; Parnetti, L. Levetiracetam in newly diagnosed late-onset post-stroke seizures: A prospective observational study. Epilepsy Res., 2008, 82(2-3), 223-226.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2008.08.008] [PMID: 18829259]
[92]
Kutlu, G.; Gomceli, Y.B.; Unal, Y.; Inan, L.E. Levetiracetam monotherapy for late poststroke seizures in the elderly. Epilepsy Behav., 2008, 13(3), 542-544.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.04.025] [PMID: 18539085]
[93]
Werhahn, K.J.; Trinka, E.; Dobesberger, J.; Unterberger, I.; Baum, P.; Deckert-Schmitz, M.; Kniess, T.; Schmitz, B.; Bernedo, V.; Ruckes, C.; Ehrlich, A.; Krämer, G. A randomized, double-blind comparison of antiepileptic drug treatment in the elderly with new-onset focal epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2015, 56(3), 450-459.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/epi.12926] [PMID: 25684224]
[94]
Larsson, D.; Baftiu, A.; Johannessen Landmark, C.; von Euler, M.; Kumlien, E.; Åsberg, S.; Zelano, J. Association between antiseizure drug monotherapy and mortality for patients with poststroke epilepsy. JAMA Neurol., 2022, 79(2), 169-175.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2021.4584] [PMID: 34902006]
[95]
Holtkamp, M.; Beghi, E.; Benninger, F.; Kälviäinen, R.; Rocamora, R.; Christensen, H. European stroke organisation guidelines for the management of post-stroke seizures and epilepsy. Eur. Stroke J., 2017, 2(2), 103-115.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2396987317705536] [PMID: 31008306]
[96]
Moazzami, K.; Emamzadeh-Fard, S.; Shabani, M. Anticonvulsive effect of atorvastatin on pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in mice: The role of nitric oxide pathway. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol., 2013, 27(4), 387-392.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-8206.2012.01038.x] [PMID: 22429218]
[97]
Scicchitano, F.; Constanti, A.; Citraro, R.; De Sarro, G.; Russo, E. Statins and epilepsy: Preclinical studies, clinical trials and statin-anticonvulsant drug interactions. Curr. Drug Targets, 2015, 16(7), 747-756.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1389450116666150330114850] [PMID: 25901524]
[98]
Reiss, A.B.; Wirkowski, E. Statins in neurological disorders: Mechanisms and therapeutic value. Sci. World J., 2009, 9, 1242-1259.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2009.141] [PMID: 19882094]
[99]
Nucera, B.; Rinaldi, F.; Nardone, R.; Lattanzi, S.; Brigo, F. Statins in primary prevention of poststroke seizures and epilepsy: A systematic review. Epilepsy Behav., 2020, 112, 107400.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107400] [PMID: 32916580]
[100]
Pandit, A.K.; Kumar, P.; Kumar, A.; Chakravarty, K.; Misra, S.; Prasad, K. High-dose statin therapy and risk of intracerebral hemorrhage: A meta-analysis. Acta Neurol. Scand., 2016, 134(1), 22-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ane.12540] [PMID: 26647879]
[101]
Zaccara, G.; Lattanzi, S.; Cincotta, M.; Russo, E. Drug treatments in patients with cardiac diseases and epilepsy. Acta Neurol. Scand., 2020, 142(1), 37-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ane.13249] [PMID: 32259277]
[102]
Ter Telgte, A.; van Leijsen, E.M.C.; Wiegertjes, K.; Klijn, C.J.M.; Tuladhar, A.M.; de Leeuw, F-E. Cerebral small vessel disease: From a focal to a global perspective. Nat. Rev. Neurol., 2018, 14(7), 387-398.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41582-018-0014-y] [PMID: 29802354]
[103]
Simoni, M.; Li, L.; Paul, N.L.M.; Gruter, B.E.; Schulz, U.G.; Küker, W.; Rothwell, P.M. Age- and sex-specific rates of leukoaraiosis in TIA and stroke patients: Population-based study. Neurology, 2012, 79(12), 1215-1222.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31826b951e] [PMID: 22955138]
[104]
Russo, E.; Leo, A.; Scicchitano, F.; Donato, A.; Ferlazzo, E.; Gasparini, S.; Cianci, V.; Mignogna, C.; Donato, G.; Citraro, R.; Aguglia, U.; De Sarro, G. Cerebral small vessel disease predisposes to temporal lobe epilepsy in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Brain Res. Bull., 2017, 130, 245-250.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2017.02.003] [PMID: 28214547]
[105]
Tchekalarova, J.; Loyens, E.; Smolders, I. Effects of AT1 receptor antagonism on kainate-induced seizures and concomitant changes in hippocampal extracellular noradrenaline, serotonin, and dopamine levels in Wistar-Kyoto and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Epilepsy Behav., 2015, 46, 66-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.03.021] [PMID: 25922088]
[106]
Bentes, C.; Pimentel, J.; Ferro, J.M. Epileptic seizures following subcortical infarcts. Cerebrovasc. Dis., 2001, 12(4), 331-334.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000047730] [PMID: 11721104]
[107]
Schreiner, A.; Pohlmann-Eden, B.; Schwartz, A.; Hennerici, M. Epileptic seizures in subcortical vascular encephalopathy. J. Neurol. Sci., 1995, 130(2), 171-177.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-510X(95)00020-3] [PMID: 8586982]
[108]
Okroglic, S.; Widmann, C.N.; Urbach, H.; Scheltens, P.; Heneka, M.T. Clinical symptoms and risk factors in cerebral microangiopathy patients. PLoS One, 2013, 8, 53455.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0053455]
[109]
Maxwell, H.; Hanby, M.; Parkes, L.M.; Gibson, L.M.; Coutinho, C.; Emsley, H.C.A. Prevalence and subtypes of radiological cerebrovascular disease in late-onset isolated seizures and epilepsy. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg., 2013, 115(5), 591-596.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.009] [PMID: 22840415]
[110]
Gasparini, S.; Ferlazzo, E.; Beghi, E.; Sofia, V.; Mumoli, L.; Labate, A.; Cianci, V.; Fatuzzo, D.; Bellavia, M.A.; Arcudi, L.; Russo, E.; De Sarro, G.; Gambardella, A.; Aguglia, U. Epilepsy associated with Leukoaraiosis mainly affects temporal lobe: A casual or causal relationship? Epilepsy Res., 2015, 109, 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2014.10.012] [PMID: 25524836]
[111]
Manford, M.; Hart, Y.M.; Sander, J.W.; Shorvon, S.D. National general practice study of epilepsy (NGPSE): Partial seizure patterns in a general population. Neurology, 1992, 42(10), 1911-1917.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.42.10.1911] [PMID: 1407572]
[112]
Smith, E.E.; Schneider, J.A.; Wardlaw, J.M.; Greenberg, S.M. Cerebral microinfarcts: The invisible lesions. Lancet Neurol., 2012, 11(3), 272-282.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70307-6] [PMID: 22341035]
[113]
Johnson, E.L.; Krauss, G.L.; Lee, A.K.; Schneider, A.L.C.; Dearborn, J.L.; Kucharska-Newton, A.M.; Huang, J.; Alonso, A.; Gottesman, R.F. Association between midlife risk factors and late-onset epilepsy. JAMA Neurol., 2018, 75(11), 1375-1382.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1935] [PMID: 30039175]
[114]
Ng, S.K.C.; Hauser, W.A.; Brust, J.C.M.; Susser, M. Hypertension and the risk of new-onset unprovoked seizures. Neurology, 1993, 43(2), 425-428.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.43.2.425] [PMID: 8437714]
[115]
Tchekalarova, J.; Georgiev, V. Angiotensin peptides modulatory system: How is it implicated in the control of seizure susceptibility? Life Sci., 2005, 76(9), 955-970.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2004.10.012] [PMID: 15607326]
[116]
Pereira, M.G.; Becari, C.; Oliveira, J.A.; Salgado, M.C.; Garcia-Cairasco, N.; Costa-Neto, C.M. Inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system prevents seizures in a rat model of epilepsy. Clin. Sci. (Lond.), 2010, 119(11), 477-482.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CS20100053] [PMID: 20533906]
[117]
Argañaraz, G.A.; Konno, A.C.; Perosa, S.R.; Santiago, J.F.; Boim, M.A.; Vidotti, D.B.; Varella, P.P.; Costa, L.G.; Canzian, M.; Porcionatto, M.A.; Yacubian, E.M.; Sakamoto, A.C.; Carrete, H., Jr; Centeno, R.S.; Amado, D.; Cavalheiro, E.A.; Junior, J.A.; Mazzacoratti, M.G. The renin-angiotensin system is upregulated in the cortex and hippocampus of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy related to mesial temporal sclerosis. Epilepsia, 2008, 49(8), 1348-1357.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01581.x] [PMID: 18363708]
[118]
Alvarez-Sabín, J.; Montaner, J.; Padró, L.; Molina, C.A.; Rovira, R.; Codina, A.; Quintana, M. Gabapentin in late-onset poststroke seizures. Neurology, 2002, 59(12), 1991-1993.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000038388.57824.B6] [PMID: 12499501]
[119]
Consoli, D.; Bosco, D.; Postorino, P.; Galati, F.; Plastino, M.; Perticoni, G.F.; Ottonello, G.A.; Passarella, B.; Ricci, S.; Neri, G.; Toni, D. Levetiracetam versus carbamazepine in patients with late poststroke seizures: A multicenter prospective randomized open-label study (EpIC Project). Cerebrovasc. Dis., 2012, 34(4), 282-289.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000342669] [PMID: 23128439]
[120]
Huang, Y.H.; Chi, N.F.; Kuan, Y.C.; Chan, L.; Hu, C.J.; Chiou, H.Y.; Chien, L.N. Efficacy of phenytoin, valproic acid, carbamazepine and new antiepileptic drugs on control of late-onset post-stroke epilepsy in Taiwan. Eur. J. Neurol., 2015, 22(11), 1459-1468.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ene.12766] [PMID: 26148132]
[121]
Sales, F.; Chaves, J.; McMurray, R.; Loureiro, R.; Fernandes, H.; Villanueva, V. Eslicarbazepine acetate in post-stroke epilepsy: Clinical practice evidence from Euro-Esli. Acta Neurol. Scand., 2020, 142(6), 563-573.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ane.13323] [PMID: 32691850]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy