Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the novel coronavirus responsible for the current global pandemic, which first emerged in December 2019. This coronavirus has affected 217 countries worldwide, most of which have enacted non-remedial preventive measures, such as nationwide lockdowns, work from home, travel bans, and social isolation. Pharmacists, doctors, nurses, technologists, and other healthcare professionals have played pivotal roles during this pandemic. Unfortunately, confirmed drugs have not been identified for the treatment of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARSCoV2; however, favipiravir and remdesivir have been reported as promising antiviral drugs. Some vaccines have already been developed, and vaccination is ongoing globally. Various nanotechnologies are currently being developed in many countries for preventing SARS-CoV-2 spread and treating COVID-19 infections. In this article, we present an overview of the COVID-19 pandemic situation and discuss nanotechnology-based approaches and investigational therapeutics for COVID-19.
Keywords: COVID-19, SARS-COV-2, antiviral drugs, nanotechnology, vaccines, immunomodulation.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12035-020-02239-z] [PMID: 33404977]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1] [PMID: 25720466]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.582025] [PMID: 33123014]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13365-017-0574-4] [PMID: 28895072]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M20-3234] [PMID: 32551813]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2006874117] [PMID: 32404416]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0824-5] [PMID: 32284618]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612827666210224142446] [PMID: 33655825]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1763199] [PMID: 32362217]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2020.03.027] [PMID: 32273253]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0950268805005054] [PMID: 16490124]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.06.051] [PMID: 32604014]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17435390.2020.1780332] [PMID: 32552140]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1002.030913] [PMID: 15030705]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsb.2010.11.021] [PMID: 21130884]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01244-13] [PMID: 23678167]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.12.009] [PMID: 24418573]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2004.01.001] [PMID: 15163419]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14336/AD.2020.0228] [PMID: 32257537]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm1143] [PMID: 15577937]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02145] [PMID: 14647384]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7] [PMID: 32015507]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0809524106] [PMID: 19321428]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/cr.2008.15] [PMID: 18227861]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gad.8.14.1726] [PMID: 7958852]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0005-2728(98)00161-3] [PMID: 10076021]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.98.4.1889] [PMID: 11172046]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.01.25.919787]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0635171100] [PMID: 12660367]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117583] [PMID: 32217117]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa325] [PMID: 32215622]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41577-020-0331-4] [PMID: 32376901]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa410] [PMID: 32270184]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2015432] [PMID: 32437596]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41418-020-0530-3] [PMID: 32205856]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/joim.13089] [PMID: 32352202]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa576] [PMID: 32407459]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0194599820926473] [PMID: 32369429]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.003] [PMID: 32387496]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2008597] [PMID: 32294339]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.1127] [PMID: 32275288]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000009937] [PMID: 32482845]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acn3.51210] [PMID: 33016619]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.062] [PMID: 32251791]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jth.14830] [PMID: 32271988]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31094-1] [PMID: 32386565]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31103-X] [PMID: 32410760]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00003246-200212000-00011] [PMID: 12483058]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(68)90166-6] [PMID: 5678094]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30076-X] [PMID: 32085846]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1343] [PMID: 32918466]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jbcps.v38i0.47441]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30360-3] [PMID: 32151335]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7] [PMID: 32007143]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585] [PMID: 32031570]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.018] [PMID: 24670324]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2020.05.012] [PMID: 32445839]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2607.200841] [PMID: 32267220]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107725]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.24.059204]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.07.20032524]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.27.119255]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26145] [PMID: 32510168]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00461-20] [PMID: 32229605]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2020.06.045] [PMID: 32621814]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.18.20038018]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106861] [PMID: 32771946]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa243] [PMID: 32382737]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104413] [PMID: 32403010]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25727] [PMID: 32104917]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13586] [PMID: 32333644]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S264020] [PMID: 32801804]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI116106] [PMID: 1281827]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0012-1606(02)00098-2] [PMID: 12654292]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2020.00616] [PMID: 32754599]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1165/ajrcmb.25.5.4486] [PMID: 11713100]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00245.2002] [PMID: 12533315]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.31.4.450] [PMID: 968803]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00512-20] [PMID: 32245835]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cclm-2020-0285] [PMID: 32172228]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00310-20] [PMID: 32132196]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3343/alm.2020.40.5.351] [PMID: 32237288]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00784-020-03248-x] [PMID: 32078048]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp2009249] [PMID: 32329974]
[PMID: 32150360]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202002_20378] [PMID: 32141569]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arcmed.2020.04.020] [PMID: 32409144]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2648] [PMID: 32091533]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10050852] [PMID: 32354113]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.04.052] [PMID: 32353371]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-0674-9] [PMID: 32203437]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c03697]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/challe11020015]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10061072] [PMID: 32486364]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c02439] [PMID: 32281785]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c02823] [PMID: 32293168]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21145126] [PMID: 32698479]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-0737-y] [PMID: 32669664]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.03.012] [PMID: 32247213]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c02540] [PMID: 32227916]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.34172/bi.2020.16] [PMID: 32793434]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5812/ijpbs.105990]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2020.04.022] [PMID: 32325096]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12195-020-00629-w]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13287-020-01804-6] [PMID: 32698898]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.120.249748] [PMID: 32680924]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/thno.46691] [PMID: 32483428]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/17425247.2016.1134486] [PMID: 26735861]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smll.201100761] [PMID: 21681985]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061135] [PMID: 23637790]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12005] [PMID: 23486063]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules200814051] [PMID: 26247927]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112648109] [PMID: 22247289]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.02.012] [PMID: 28237499]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2020.1776115] [PMID: 32574081]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b08176] [PMID: 26918485]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics7040093] [PMID: 30373130]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10570-016-1110-z]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119325062.ch5]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12879-015-1115-5] [PMID: 26382043]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106947] [PMID: 32919216]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.04.001] [PMID: 21536322]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.00458] [PMID: 32793619]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005792-200103000-00005] [PMID: 11307588]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.03.005] [PMID: 32388324]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2019.07.001] [PMID: 31668196]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2022236] [PMID: 32649078]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31022-9] [PMID: 32423584]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101647] [PMID: 32247927]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1767691] [PMID: 32396771]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.0c00489] [PMID: 32483554]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101615] [PMID: 32145386]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1843.2003.00525.x] [PMID: 15018130]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13063-017-2427-0] [PMID: 29382391]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6] [PMID: 31924756]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001282] [PMID: 32187464]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.563478] [PMID: 33178016]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.21.JOC30885] [PMID: 12734147]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.11.128] [PMID: 15607755]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2014.04.006] [PMID: 24769245]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/092986708784049658] [PMID: 18393857]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02077-15] [PMID: 26739045]
[PMID: 18756809]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/aps.2012.80] [PMID: 22941291]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-3542(02)00212-7] [PMID: 12742577]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-49973-6] [PMID: 31537880]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1208/s12248-007-9000-9] [PMID: 18446504]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep25428] [PMID: 27156930]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.10.004] [PMID: 24161512]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.06.002] [PMID: 23769930]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/BJ20120150] [PMID: 22417684]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104787] [PMID: 32251768]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41429-020-0336-z] [PMID: 32533071]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69] [PMID: 16115318]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005] [PMID: 32173110]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-12200-1] [PMID: 33447984]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-137785] [PMID: 32295814]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25729] [PMID: 32104907]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2004.03.003] [PMID: 15288617]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.013599-0] [PMID: 19625461]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1004.030458] [PMID: 15200845]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2005.04.010] [PMID: 16045996]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2020.04.009] [PMID: 32320677]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21093104] [PMID: 32354030]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25801] [PMID: 32253759]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/fmb-2016-0125] [PMID: 28106477]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0047-6374(96)01860-X] [PMID: 9147362]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/13543776.2013.823159] [PMID: 23905913]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10792-015-0137-8] [PMID: 26463642]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002331] [PMID: 22046132]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-198020020-00001] [PMID: 6995097]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/apa.15270] [PMID: 32202343]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-635X2012000400005]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2016.04.001] [PMID: 27095301]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/aging.103102] [PMID: 32320384]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf1279] [PMID: 27199430]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30304-4] [PMID: 32032529]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.034] [PMID: 32307245]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2018.11.004] [PMID: 30612923]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm9010275] [PMID: 31963877]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030343] [PMID: 16968120]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.129.6.1441] [PMID: 16778260]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.0994] [PMID: 32167524]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30079-5] [PMID: 32105632]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PCC.0b013e3182a55735] [PMID: 24226567]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jth.14817] [PMID: 32220112]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.13023] [PMID: 33205620]
[PMID: 12664666]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2020.03.012] [PMID: 32362390]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.109.1.e6] [PMID: 11773574]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu10121860] [PMID: 30513795]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12040988] [PMID: 32252338]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4110/in.2013.13.2.70] [PMID: 23700397]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0083-6729(00)59011-6]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-3542(00)00141-8] [PMID: 11248360]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4254/wjh.v9.i6.333] [PMID: 28293383]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md17060374] [PMID: 31234533]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu11122990] [PMID: 31817726]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.07.003] [PMID: 15358143]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2018.10.026] [PMID: 30703574]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61452-9] [PMID: 22381456]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1096/fj.00-0721fje] [PMID: 11387264]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm0595-433] [PMID: 7585090]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps/pez207] [PMID: 31220864]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12035-020-02096-w] [PMID: 32889653]
[PMID: 3485544]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1742-4933-6-9] [PMID: 19523191]
[PMID: 2535314]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOG.0b013e328321b395] [PMID: 19528881]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-082117-051749] [PMID: 29852086]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-49122-z] [PMID: 31477792]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5317(88)80016-2]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms20010175] [PMID: 30621285]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12985-016-0671-7] [PMID: 28115001]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-3542(98)00034-5] [PMID: 9806486]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/79.6.1037] [PMID: 15159234]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/02770903.2012.739240] [PMID: 23134345]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1240094] [PMID: 23846901]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30141-9] [PMID: 32113510]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4783] [PMID: 32219428]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.11.7095-7103.2005] [PMID: 15890949]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25681] [PMID: 31967327]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1248/bpb.b12-00623] [PMID: 22971649]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-004-4240-7] [PMID: 15549171]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00976-0] [PMID: 14675530]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2017.06.005]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/med.20055] [PMID: 16521129]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25707] [PMID: 32052466]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2006.04.014] [PMID: 16730806]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2006.04.073] [PMID: 16684531]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2220/biomedres.36.219] [PMID: 26106051]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.011] [PMID: 32330414]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08416-7] [PMID: 11988262]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0300-9084(00)01173-1] [PMID: 11086225]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30063-X] [PMID: 29396004]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00828.x] [PMID: 16842264]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv392] [PMID: 26198719]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31604-4] [PMID: 32702298]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mt.2013.284] [PMID: 24374965]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.05.032] [PMID: 28579232]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1469-0691.12568] [PMID: 24476201]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ddr.21709] [PMID: 32632960]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01343-4] [PMID: 32268923]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2020.100407] [PMID: 32289016]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5582/ddt.2020.01012] [PMID: 32147628]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11655-020-3192-6] [PMID: 32065348]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25783]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30116-8] [PMID: 32171062]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4031] [PMID: 32167538]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.6019] [PMID: 32282022]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-05979-7] [PMID: 32123994]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0] [PMID: 32169119]