Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pediatric Reviews

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-3963
ISSN (Online): 1875-6336

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Vitiligo: An Updated Narrative Review

Author(s): Alexander K.C. Leung*, Joseph M. Lam, Kin Fon Leong and Kam Lun Hon

Volume 17, Issue 2, 2021

Published on: 10 December, 2020

Page: [76 - 91] Pages: 16

DOI: 10.2174/1573396316666201210125858

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Vitiligo is a relatively common acquired pigmentation disorder that can cause significant psychological stress and stigmatism.

Objective: This article aims to familiarize physicians with the clinical manifestations, evaluation, diagnosis, and management of vitiligo.

Methods: A Pubmed search was conducted in Clinical Queries using the key term “vitiligo”. The search included meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, clinical trials, observational studies, and reviews. The search was restricted to English language. The information retrieved from the above search was used in the compilation of the present article.

Results: Approximately one quarter of patients with vitiligo have the onset before 10 years of age. Genetic, immunological, neurogenic and environmental factors may have a role to play in the pathogenesis. Vitiligo typically presents as acquired depigmented, well-demarcated macules/patches that appear milk- or chalk-white in color. Lesions tend to increase in number and enlarge centrifugally in size with time. Sites of predilection include the face, followed by the neck, lower limbs, trunk, and upper limbs. The clinical course is generally unpredictable. In children with fair skin, no active treatment is usually necessary other than the use of sunscreens and camouflage cosmetics. If treatment is preferred for cosmesis, topical corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors, and narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy are the mainstays of treatment.

Conclusion: The therapeutic effect of all the treatment modalities varies considerably from individual to individual. As such, treatment must be individualized. In general, the best treatment response is seen in younger patients, recent disease onset, darker skin types, and head and neck lesions. Topical corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors are the treatment choice for those with localized disease. Topical calcineurin inhibitors are generally preferred for lesions on genitalia, intertriginous areas, face, and neck. Narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy should be considered in patients who have widespread vitiligo or those with localized vitiligo associated with a significant impact on the quality of life who do not respond to treatment with topical corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors.

Keywords: Depigmentation, hypopigmentation, topical corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors, vitiligo, ultraviolet B phototherapy.

« Previous
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Lotti T, Gori A, Zanieri F, Colucci R, Moretti S. Vitiligo: new and emerging treatments. Dermatol Ther 2008; 21(2): 110-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8019.2008.00178.x] [PMID: 18394085]
[2]
Leung AKC, Barankin B, Hon KL. Vitiligo. Pediatr Neon Care 2013; 1: 103.
[3]
Whitton ME, Pinart M, Batchelor J, et al. Interventions for vitiligo. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (2): CD003263.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003263.pub5] [PMID: 25710794]
[4]
Tay EY, Chong CLV, Chong WJJP, et al. Treatment outcomes of vitiligo in Asian children. Pediatr Dermatol 2018; 35(2): 265-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pde.13431] [PMID: 29436008]
[5]
Bergqvist C, Ezzedine K. Vitiligo: A review. Dermatology 2020; 1-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000506103]
[6]
Cesar Silva de Castro C, Miot HA. Prevalence of vitiligo in Brazil-A population survey. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2018; 31(3): 448-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pcmr.12681] [PMID: 29272074]
[7]
Matin R. Vitiligo in adults and children. Clin Evid 2008; 2018: 1717.
[8]
Taïeb A, Picardo M. Clinical practice. Vitiligo. N Engl J Med 2009; 360(2): 160-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp0804388] [PMID: 19129529]
[9]
Zhang Y, Cai Y, Shi M, et al. The prevalence of vitiligo: A meta-analysis. PLoS One 2016; 11(9): e0163806.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163806] [PMID: 27673680]
[10]
Barro M, Diallo JW, Ouattara ABI, Nacro B. Congenital vitiligo: A case observed in the cohort of HIV-exposed infants in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. Pediatr Rep 2017; 9(3): 7300.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/pr.2017.7300] [PMID: 29081934]
[11]
Kambhampati BN, Sawatkar GU, Kumaran MS, Parsad D. Congenital vitiligo: A case report. J Cutan Med Surg 2016; 20(4): 354-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1203475416629132] [PMID: 26817479]
[12]
Yaghoobi R, Omidian M, Bagherani N. Vitiligo: a review of the published work. J Dermatol 2011; 38(5): 419-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2010.01139.x] [PMID: 21667529]
[13]
Taieb A, Alomar, Böhm M, Dell'anna ML, De Pase A, Eleftheriadou V, et al. Guidelines for the management of vitiligo: the European Dermatology Forum consensus. Br J Dermatol 2013; 168: 5-19.
[14]
Alikhan A, Felsten LM, Daly M, Petronic-Rosic V. Vitiligo: a comprehensive overview Part I. Introduction, epidemiology, quality of life, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, associations, histopathology, etiology, and work-up. J Am Acad Dermatol 2011; 65(3): 473-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2010.11.061] [PMID: 21839315]
[15]
Cupertino F, Niemeyer-Corbellini JP, Ramos-E-Silva M. Psychosomatic aspects of vitiligo. Clin Dermatol 2017; 35(3): 292-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2017.01.001] [PMID: 28511827]
[16]
Halder RM, Chappell JL. Vitiligo update. Semin Cutan Med Surg 2009; 28(2): 86-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sder.2009.04.008] [PMID: 19608058]
[17]
Grimes PE. Vitiligo: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis. UpToDate
[18]
Frisoli ML, Essien K, Harris JE. Vitiligo: Mechanisms of pathogenesis and treatment. Annu Rev Immunol 2020; 38: 621-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-immunol-100919-023531] [PMID: 32017656]
[19]
Huggins RH, Schwartz RA, Janniger CK. Childhood vitiligo. Cutis 2007; 79(4): 277-80.
[PMID: 17500374]
[20]
Speeckaert R, van Geel N. Vitiligo: An update on pathophysiology and treatment options. Am J Clin Dermatol 2017; 18(6): 733-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40257-017-0298-5] [PMID: 28577207]
[21]
Gianfaldoni S, Tchernev G, Wollina U, et al. Vitiligo in children: A better understanding of the disease. Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2018; 6(1): 181-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2018.040] [PMID: 29484022]
[22]
Li Z, Ren J, Niu X, et al. Meta-analysis of the association between vitiligo and human leukocyte antigen-A. BioMed Res Int 2016; 2016: 5412806.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/5412806] [PMID: 27689083]
[23]
Almohideb M. Associations of angiotensin-converting enzyme gene insertion/deletion (ACE gene I/D) polymorphism with vitiligo: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Cureus 2020; 12(5): e8046.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8046] [PMID: 32528781]
[24]
Arechiga AF, Habib T, He Y, et al. Cutting edge: the PTPN22 allelic variant associated with autoimmunity impairs B cell signaling. J Immunol 2009; 182(6): 3343-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0713370] [PMID: 19265110]
[25]
Bakry O, Mariee A, Badr I, Tayel N, El Gendy S. NPY gene polymorphism in vitiligo: A case-control study in Egyptian patients. Indian J Dermatol 2020; 65(1): 65-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijd.IJD_104_18] [PMID: 32029945]
[26]
Martins LT, Frigeri HR, de Castro CCS, Mira MT. Association study between vitiligo and autoimmune-related genes CYP27B1, REL, TNFAIP3, IL2 and IL21. Exp Dermatol 2020; 29(6): 535-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/exd.14100] [PMID: 32282963]
[27]
Silverberg NB. Update on childhood vitiligo. Curr Opin Pediatr 2010; 22(4): 445-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOP.0b013e32833b6ac3] [PMID: 20616733]
[28]
Srivastava DSL, Aggarwal K, Singh G. Is NAT2 gene polymorphism associated with vitiligo? Indian J Dermatol 2020; 65(3): 173-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijd.IJD_388_18] [PMID: 32565555]
[29]
Yuan X, Meng D, Cao P, Sun L, Pang Y, Li Y, et al. Identification of pathogenic genes and transcription factors in vitiligo. Dermatol Ther 2019; 32(5)
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dth.13025]
[30]
Chang HC, Lin MH, Huang YC, Hou TY. The association between vitiligo and diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2019; 81(6): 1442-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2019.06.022] [PMID: 31228523]
[31]
Dahir AM, Thomsen SF. Comorbidities in vitiligo: comprehensive review. Int J Dermatol 2018; 57(10): 1157-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijd.14055] [PMID: 29808541]
[32]
Hadi A, Wang JF, Uppal P, Penn LA, Elbuluk N. Comorbid diseases of vitiligo: A 10-year cross-sectional retrospective study of an urban US population. J Am Acad Dermatol 2020; 82(3): 628-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2019.07.036] [PMID: 31325552]
[33]
Leung AKC. Vitiligo.Common Problems in Ambulatory Pediatrics: Specific Clinical Problems New York Nova Science Publishers, Inc 2011; Vol. 2: pp. 229-34.
[34]
Sawicki J, Siddha S, Rosen C. Vitiligo and associated autoimmune disease: retrospective review of 300 patients. J Cutan Med Surg 2012; 16(4): 261-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/120347541201600408] [PMID: 22784519]
[35]
Vrijman C, Kroon MW, Limpens J, et al. The prevalence of thyroid disease in patients with vitiligo: a systematic review. Br J Dermatol 2012; 167(6): 1224-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2012.11198.x] [PMID: 22860695]
[36]
Spritz RA, Andersen GH. Genetics of Vitiligo. Dermatol Clin 2017; 35(2): 245-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2016.11.013] [PMID: 28317533]
[37]
Iannella G, Greco A, Didona D, et al. Vitiligo: Pathogenesis, clinical variants and treatment approaches. Autoimmun Rev 2016; 15(4): 335-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2015.12.006] [PMID: 26724277]
[38]
Frączek A, Owczarczyk-Saczonek A, Placek W. The role of TRM cells in the pathogenesis of vitiligo - A review of the current state-of-the-art. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21(10): 3552.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21103552] [PMID: 32443482]
[39]
Acharya P, Mathur M. Interleukin-17 level in patients with vitiligo: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Australas J Dermatol 2020; 61(2): e208-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ajd.13233] [PMID: 31895472]
[40]
Gomes IA, de Carvalho FO, de Menezes AF, et al. The role of interleukins in vitiligo: a systematic review. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2018; 32(12): 2097-111.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jdv.15016] [PMID: 29704266]
[41]
Li J, Yan M, Zhang Y, et al. Meta-analysis of the association between NLRP1 polymorphisms and the susceptibility to vitiligo and associated autoimmune diseases. Oncotarget 2017; 8(50): 88179-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.21165] [PMID: 29152150]
[42]
Ezzedine K, Silverberg N. A practical approach to the diagnosis and treatment of vitiligo in children. Pediatrics 2016; 138(1): e20154126.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4126] [PMID: 27328922]
[43]
Lotti T, D’Erme AM. Vitiligo as a systemic disease. Clin Dermatol 2014; 32(3): 430-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2013.11.011] [PMID: 24767192]
[44]
Mohan GC, Silverberg JI. Association of vitiligo and alopecia areata with atopic dermatitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Dermatol 2015; 151(5): 522-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2014.3324] [PMID: 25471826]
[45]
Silverberg NB. Pediatric vitiligo. Pediatr Clin North Am 2014; 61(2): 347-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2013.11.008] [PMID: 24636650]
[46]
Acharya P, Mathur M. Association of atopic dermatitis with vitiligo: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cosmet Dermatol 2019.
[47]
Yen H, Chi CC. Association between psoriasis and vitiligo: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Dermatol 2019; 20(1): 31-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40257-018-0394-1] [PMID: 30317450]
[48]
Rashighi M, Harris JE. Vitiligo pathogenesis and emerging treatments. Dermatol Clin 2017; 35(2): 257-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2016.11.014] [PMID: 28317534]
[49]
Yesilova Y, Turan E, Ucmak D, Selek S, Halil Yavuz İ, Tanrıkulu O. Reduced serum paraoxonase-1 levels in vitiligo: further evidence of oxidative stress. Redox Rep 2012; 17(5): 214-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1351000212Y.0000000025] [PMID: 23068968]
[50]
Mathachan SR, Khurana A, Gautam RK, Kulhari A, Sharma L, Sardana K. Does oxidative stress correlate with disease activity and severity in vitiligo? An analytical study. J Cosmet Dermatol 2020.
[51]
Mirnezami M, Rahimi H. Serum zinc level in vitiligo: A case-control study. Indian J Dermatol 2018; 63(3): 227-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijd.IJD_457_16] [PMID: 29937559]
[52]
Huo J, Liu T, Huan Y, Li F, Wang R. Serum level of antioxidant vitamins and minerals in patients with vitiligo, a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2020; 12: 126570.
[53]
Liu W, Ma DL. Koebner phenomenon in vitiligo after suction blister epidermal grafting. CMAJ 2019; 191(35): E968.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.190070]
[54]
van Geel N, Speeckaert R, De Wolf J, et al. Clinical significance of Koebner phenomenon in vitiligo. Br J Dermatol 2012; 167(5): 1017-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2012.11111.x] [PMID: 22950415]
[55]
Khurrum H, AlGhamdi KM, Bedaiwi KM, AlBalahi NM. Multivariate analysis of factors associated with the Koebner phenomenon in vitiligo: An observational study of 381 patients. Ann Dermatol 2017; 29(3): 302-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5021/ad.2017.29.3.302] [PMID: 28566906]
[56]
Anthony N, Bourneau-Martin D, Ghamrawi S, Lagarce L, Babin M, Briet M. Drug-induced vitiligo: a case/non-case study in Vigibase(®), the WHO pharmacovigilance database. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2020; 34(6): 736-42.
[57]
Guler Aksu G, Akdere P, Toros F. Methylphenidate associated vitiligo in a child: A case report. Asia-Pac Psychiatry 2019; 11(3): e12351.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/appy.12351] [PMID: 30821429]
[58]
Kokandi AA. Vitiligo appearing after oral isotretinoin therapy for acne. Case Rep Dermatol Med 2018; 2018: 3697260.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/3697260] [PMID: 30112221]
[59]
Nishino K, Ohe S, Kitamura M, et al. Nivolumab induced vitiligo-like lesions in a patient with metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. J Thorac Dis 2018; 10(6): E481-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/jtd.2018.05.104] [PMID: 30069410]
[60]
O’Connor M, Silverberg JI, Silverberg NB. The effect of isotretinoin on vitiligo and autoimmune comorbidity. J Drugs Dermatol 2020; 19(6): 637-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.36849/JDD.2020.4938] [PMID: 32574013]
[61]
Turkowski Y, Konnikov N. Sulfasalazine-induced generalized vitiligo in a patient with dermatitis herpetiformis and celiac disease. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 2019; 32(5): e13007.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dth.13007] [PMID: 31237078]
[62]
Khalil A, Zaidman I, Bergman R, Elhasid R, Ben-Arush MW. Autoimmune complications after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in children with nonmalignant disorders. ScientificWorldJournal 2014; 2014: 581657.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/581657] [PMID: 24574898]
[63]
Li W, Xin H, Ge L, Song H, Cao W. Induction of vitiligo after imiquimod treatment of condylomata acuminata. BMC Infect Dis 2014; 14: 329.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-329] [PMID: 24928346]
[64]
Mori S, Akasaka T. Imiquimod-induced vitiligo-like hypopigmentation after treatment for radiation keratosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 2016; 41(8): 930-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ced.12921] [PMID: 27779322]
[65]
Tkachenko E, Lin JY, Hartman RI. Regional vitiligo induced by imiquimod treatment for in-transit melanoma metastases. JAAD Case Rep 2019; 5(5): 427-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdcr.2019.03.015] [PMID: 31065581]
[66]
Harris JE. Chemical-Induced Vitiligo. Dermatol Clin 2017; 35(2): 151-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2016.11.006] [PMID: 28317525]
[67]
Rodrigues M, Ezzedine K, Hamzavi I, Pandya AG, Harris JE. Vitiligo Working Group. New discoveries in the pathogenesis and classification of vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol 2017; 77(1): 1-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2016.10.048] [PMID: 28619550]
[68]
Shakshouk H, Lehman JS. Chemical-associated vitiligo. Mayo Clin Proc 2020; 95(6): 1105-6.
[69]
van Geel N, Speeckaert R. Segmental Vitiligo. Dermatol Clin 2017; 35(2): 145-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2016.11.005] [PMID: 28317524]
[70]
Nicolaidou E, Mastraftsi S, Tzanetakou V, Rigopoulos D. Childhood Vitiligo. Am J Clin Dermatol 2019; 20(4): 515-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40257-019-00430-0] [PMID: 30911977]
[71]
Vachiramon V, Onprasert W, Harnchoowong S, Chanprapaph K. Prevalence and clinical characteristics of itch in vitiligo and its clinical significance. BioMed Res Int 2017; 2017: 5617838.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/5617838] [PMID: 28828385]
[72]
Cho SB, Kim JH, Cho S, Park JM, Park YK, Oh SH. Vitiligo in children and adolescents: association with thyroid dysfunction. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2011; 25(1): 64-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2010.03694.x] [PMID: 20456552]
[73]
Kamat D, Prabhakaran N, Malathi M. Follicular vitiligo: A rare presentation of vitiligo. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2019; 85(4): 414-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijdvl.IJDVL_313_18] [PMID: 31089010]
[74]
Taïeb A, Seneschal J, Mazereeuw-Hautier J. Special Considerations in Children with Vitiligo. Dermatol Clin 2017; 35(2): 229-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2016.11.011] [PMID: 28317531]
[75]
Goh BK, Pandya AG. Presentations, Signs of Activity, and Differential Diagnosis of Vitiligo. Dermatol Clin 2017; 35(2): 135-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2016.11.004] [PMID: 28317523]
[76]
Tarlé RG, Nascimento LM, Mira MT, Castro CC. Vitiligo--part 1. An Bras Dermatol 2014; 89(3): 461-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/abd1806-4841.20142573] [PMID: 24937821]
[77]
Manga P, Elbuluk N, Orlow SJ. Recent advances in understanding vitiligo. F1000Res 2016.
[78]
Isenstein AL, Morrell DS, Burkhart CN. Vitiligo: treatment approach in children. Pediatr Ann 2009; 38(6): 339-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00904481-20090522-01] [PMID: 19588678]
[79]
Leung AKC, Barankin B. Pigmented lesion with a depigmented rim. Am Fam Physician 2017; 96(1): 53-4.
[PMID: 28671374]
[80]
Cohen BE, Mu EW, Orlow SJ. Comparison of childhood vitiligo presenting with or without associated halo nevi. Pediatr Dermatol 2016; 33(1): 44-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pde.12717] [PMID: 26573093]
[81]
Nagarajan A, Masthan MK, Sankar LS, Narayanasamy AB, Elumalai R. Oral manifestations of vitiligo. Indian J Dermatol 2015; 60(1): 103.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.147844] [PMID: 25657420]
[82]
van Geel N, Grine L, De Wispelaere P, Mertens D, Prinsen CAC, Speeckaert R. Clinical visible signs of disease activity in vitiligo: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2019; 33(9): 1667-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jdv.15604] [PMID: 31131483]
[83]
Ahluwalia J, Correa-Selm LM, Rao BK. Vitiligo: Not simply a skin disease. Skinmed 2017; 15(2): 125-7.
[PMID: 28528606]
[84]
Elbuluk N, Ezzedine K. Quality of life, burden of disease, co-morbidities, and systemic effects in vitiligo patients. Dermatol Clin 2017; 35(2): 117-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2016.11.002] [PMID: 28317521]
[85]
Prabha N, Chhabra N, Shrivastava AK, et al. Ocular abnormalities in vitiligo patients: A cross-sectional study. Indian Dermatol Online J 2019; 10(6): 731-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/idoj.IDOJ_361_18] [PMID: 31807463]
[86]
Gawkrodger DJ, Ormerod AD, Shaw L, et al. Vitiligo: concise evidence based guidelines on diagnosis and management. Postgrad Med J 2010; 86(1018): 466-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2009.093278] [PMID: 20709768]
[87]
Mazzei Weiss ME. Vitiligo: to biopsy or not to biopsy? Cutis 2020; 105(4): 189-90.
[PMID: 32463851]
[88]
Jha AK, Sonthalia S, Lallas A. Dermoscopy as an evolving tool to assess vitiligo activity. J Am Acad Dermatol 2018; 78(5): 1017-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2017.12.009] [PMID: 29229577]
[89]
Kumar Jha A, Sonthalia S, Lallas A, Chaudhary RKP. Dermoscopy in vitiligo: diagnosis and beyond. Int J Dermatol 2018; 57(1): 50-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijd.13795] [PMID: 29076154]
[90]
Ezzedine K, Eleftheriadou V, Whitton M, van Geel N. Vitiligo. Lancet 2015; 386(9988): 74-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60763-7] [PMID: 25596811]
[91]
Agarwal S, Ojha A. Piebaldism: A brief report and review of the literature. Indian Dermatol Online J 2012; 3(2): 144-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2229-5178.96722] [PMID: 23130293]
[92]
Leung AK, Feingold M. Pityriasis alba. Am J Dis Child 1986; 140(4): 379-80.
[PMID: 3953530]
[93]
Leung AKC, Robson WLM. Tuberous sclerosis complex: a review. J Pediatr Health Care 2007; 21(2): 108-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2006.05.004] [PMID: 17321910]
[94]
Leung AK, Hon KL, Robson WL. Atopic dermatitis. Adv Pediatr 2007; 54: 241-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2007.03.013] [PMID: 17918474]
[95]
Leung AKC, Barankin B. A linear band of erythematous, flat-topped papules on the forearm. Paediatr Child Health 2018; 23(4): 260-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxy009] [PMID: 30038532]
[96]
Liu ZH, Xia XJ, Shen H. Vitiligo-like depigmentation after chromoblastomycosis: a kind of postinflammatory depigmentation due to fungal infection. Mycopathologia 2020.
[97]
Qualia CM, Brown MR, Leung AKC, et al. Index of suspicion. Pediatr Rev 2007; 28(5): 193-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/pir.28-5-193] [PMID: 17473124]
[98]
Roh D, Shin K, Kim WI, et al. Clinical differences between segmental nevus depigmentosus and segmental vitiligo. J Dermatol 2019; 46(9): 777-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1346-8138.15015] [PMID: 31342527]
[99]
Roh MR. Acquired hypopigmentation disorders other than vitiligo. UpToDate
[100]
Osinubi O, Grainge MJ, Hong L, et al. The prevalence of psychological comorbidity in people with vitiligo: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Dermatol 2018; 178(4): 863-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.16049] [PMID: 28991357]
[101]
Rzepecki AK, McLellan BN, Elbuluk N. Beyond traditional treatment: The importance of psychosocial therapy in vitiligo. J Drugs Dermatol 2018; 17(6): 688-91.
[PMID: 29879259]
[102]
Silverberg JI, Silverberg NB. Quality of life impairment in children and adolescents with vitiligo. Pediatr Dermatol 2014; 31(3): 309-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pde.12226] [PMID: 24304125]
[103]
Simons RE, Zevy DL, Jafferany M. Psychodermatology of vitiligo: Psychological impact and consequences. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 2020; 33(3): e13418.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dth.13418] [PMID: 32297399]
[104]
Ucuz I, Altunisik N, Sener S, Turkmen D, Kavuran NA, Marsak M, et al. Quality of life, emotion dysregulation, attention deficit and psychiatric comorbidity in children and adolescents with vitiligo. Clin Exp Dermatol 2020.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ced.14196]
[105]
Silverberg NB. Recent advances in childhood vitiligo. Clin Dermatol 2014; 32(4): 524-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2014.02.006] [PMID: 25017463]
[106]
Bidaki R, Majidi N, Moghadam Ahmadi A, et al. Vitiligo and social acceptance. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2018; 11: 383-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CCID.S151114] [PMID: 30046249]
[107]
Ezzedine K, Eleftheriadou V. Vitiligo and quality of life: the dark face of whiteness. Br J Dermatol 2018; 178(1): 28-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.16072] [PMID: 29357599]
[108]
Morales-Sánchez MA, Vargas-Salinas M, Peralta-Pedrero ML, Olguín-García MG, Jurado-Santa Cruz F. Impacto del vitíligo en la calidad de vida. Actas Dermosifiliogr 2017; 108(7): 637-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ad.2017.03.007] [PMID: 28456327]
[109]
Morrison B, Burden-Teh E, Batchelor JM, Mead E, Grindlay D, Ratib S. Quality of life in people with vitiligo: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Dermatol 2017; 177(6): e338-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.15933] [PMID: 28869779]
[110]
Teovska Mitrevska N, Eleftheriadou V, Guarneri F. Quality of life in vitiligo patients. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 2012; 25(Suppl. 1): S28-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dth.12007] [PMID: 23237035]
[111]
Andrade G, Rangu S, Provini L, Putterman E, Gauthier A, Castelo-Soccio L. Childhood vitiligo impacts emotional health of parents: a prospective, cross-sectional study of quality of life for primary caregivers. J Patient Rep Outcomes 2020; 4(1): 20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s41687-020-0186-2] [PMID: 32193721]
[112]
van Geel N, Speeckaert M, Brochez L, Lambert J, Speeckaert R. Clinical profile of generalized vitiligo patients with associated autoimmune/autoinflammatory diseases. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2014; 28(6): 741-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jdv.12169] [PMID: 23590677]
[113]
Iacovelli P, Sinagra JLM, Vidolin AP, et al. Relevance of thyroiditis and of other autoimmune diseases in children with vitiligo. Dermatology 2005; 210(1): 26-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000081479] [PMID: 15604541]
[114]
Anbar T, Hay RA, Abdel-Rahman AT, Moftah NH, Al-Khayyat MA. Clinical study of nail changes in vitiligo. J Cosmet Dermatol 2013; 12(1): 67-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12022] [PMID: 23438144]
[115]
Topal IO, Gungor S, Kocaturk OE, Duman H, Durmuscan M. Nail abnormalities in patients with vitiligo. An Bras Dermatol 2016; 91(4): 442-5. [F].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/abd1806-4841.20164620] [PMID: 27579738]
[116]
Karadag R, Esmer O, Karadag AS, et al. Evaluation of ocular findings in patients with vitiligo. Int J Dermatol 2016; 55(3): 351-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijd.13031] [PMID: 26235484]
[117]
Sarnoff DS. Therapeutic update on vitiligo. J Drugs Dermatol 2015; 14(2): 109-11.
[PMID: 25689803]
[118]
Lo YH, Cheng GS, Huang CC, Chang WY, Wu CS. Efficacy and safety of topical tacrolimus for the treatment of face and neck vitiligo. J Dermatol 2010; 37(2): 125-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2009.00774.x] [PMID: 20175845]
[119]
Colucci R, Lotti T, Moretti S. Vitiligo: an update on current pharmacotherapy and future directions. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012; 13(13): 1885-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14656566.2012.712113] [PMID: 22835073]
[120]
Taneja N, Sreenivas V, Sahni K, Gupta V, Ramam M. A cross-sectional study of spontaneous repigmentation in vitiligo. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2020; 86(3): 240-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijdvl.IJDVL_409_18] [PMID: 31793491]
[121]
Mu EW, Cohen BE, Orlow SJ. Early-onset childhood vitiligo is associated with a more extensive and progressive course. J Am Acad Dermatol 2015; 73(3): 467-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2015.05.038] [PMID: 26118892]
[122]
Wen Y, Wu X, Peng H, et al. Cancer risks in patients with vitiligo: a Mendelian randomization study. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2020; 146(8): 1933-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00432-020-03245-3] [PMID: 32462299]
[123]
Tamesis ME, Morelli JG. Vitiligo treatment in childhood: a state of the art review. Pediatr Dermatol 2010; 27(5): 437-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01159.x] [PMID: 20553403]
[124]
Bassiouny D, Hegazy R, Esmat S, Gawdat HI, Ahmed Ezzat M, Tawfik HA, et al. Cosmetic camouflage as an adjuvant to vitiligo therapies: Effect on quality of life. J Cosmet Dermatol 2020; 20(1): 159-65.
[125]
Hossain C, Porto DA, Hamzavi I, Lim HW. Camouflaging agents for vitiligo patients. J Drugs Dermatol 2016; 15(4): 384-7.
[PMID: 27050692]
[126]
Karagaiah P, Valle Y, Sigova J, et al. Emerging drugs for the treatment of vitiligo. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2020; 25(1): 7-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14728214.2020.1712358] [PMID: 31958256]
[127]
Felsten LM, Alikhan A, Petronic-Rosic V. Vitiligo: a comprehensive overview Part II: treatment options and approach to treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol 2011; 65(3): 493-514.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2010.10.043] [PMID: 21839316]
[128]
Grimes PE. Vitiligo: Management and prognosis. UpToDate Waltham, MA
[129]
Van Driessche F, Silverberg N. Current management of pediatric vitiligo. Paediatr Drugs 2015; 17(4): 303-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40272-015-0135-3] [PMID: 26022363]
[130]
Rodrigues M, Ezzedine K, Hamzavi I, Pandya AG, Harris JE. Vitiligo Working Group. Current and emerging treatments for vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol 2017; 77(1): 17-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2016.11.010] [PMID: 28619557]
[131]
Lotti T, Buggiani G, Troiano M, et al. Targeted and combination treatments for vitiligo. Comparative evaluation of different current modalities in 458 subjects. Dermatol Ther 2008; 21(Suppl. 1): S20-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8019.2008.00198.x] [PMID: 18727812]
[132]
Agarwal K, Podder I, Kassir M, et al. Therapeutic options in vitiligo with special emphasis on immunomodulators: A comprehensive update with review of literature. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 2020; 33(2): e13215.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dth.13215] [PMID: 31891450]
[133]
Gianfaldoni S, Wollina U, Tchernev G, Lotti J, França K, Lotti T. Vitiligo in children: A review of conventional treatments. Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2018; 6(1): 213-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2018.054] [PMID: 29484026]
[134]
Hon KL, Loo S, Leung AKC, Li JTS, Lee VWY. An overview of drug discovery efforts for eczema: why is this itch so difficult to scratch? Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 15(4): 487-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460441.2020.1722639] [PMID: 32050818]
[135]
Lotti T, Agarwal K, Podder I, et al. Safety of the current drug treatments for vitiligo. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2020; 19(4): 499-511.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14740338.2020.1729737] [PMID: 32067513]
[136]
Hon KL, Leung AKC, Leung TNH, Lee VWY. Investigational drugs for atopic dermatitis. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2018; 27(8): 637-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13543784.2018.1494723] [PMID: 30058384]
[137]
Lee JH, Kwon HS, Jung HM, et al. Treatment outcomes of topical calcineurin inhibitor therapy for patients with vitiligo: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Dermatol 2019; 155(8): 929-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2019.0696] [PMID: 31141108]
[138]
Chang HC, Hsu YP, Huang YC. The effectiveness of topical calcineurin inhibitors compared with topical corticosteroids in the treatment of vitiligo: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2020; 82(1): 243-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2019.07.108] [PMID: 31408687]
[139]
Ho N, Pope E, Weinstein M, Greenberg S, Webster C, Krafchik BR. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of topical tacrolimus 0·1% vs. clobetasol propionate 0·05% in childhood vitiligo. Br J Dermatol 2011; 165(3): 626-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2011.10351.x] [PMID: 21457214]
[140]
Lepe V, Moncada B, Castanedo-Cazares JP, Torres-Alvarez MB, Ortiz CA, Torres-Rubalcava AB. A double-blind randomized trial of 0.1% tacrolimus vs 0.05% clobetasol for the treatment of childhood vitiligo. Arch Dermatol 2003; 139(5): 581-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archderm.139.5.581] [PMID: 12756094]
[141]
Bleuel R, Eberlein B. Therapeutic management of vitiligo. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2018; 16(11): 1309-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ddg.13680] [PMID: 30335222]
[142]
Nahhas AF, Braunberger TL, Hamzavi IH. Update on the management of vitiligo. Skin Therapy Lett 2019; 24(3): 1-6.
[PMID: 31095346]
[143]
Parihar AS, Tembhre MK, Sharma VK, Gupta S, Chattopadhyay P, Deepak KK. Effect of narrowband ultraviolet B treatment on microRNA expression in active nonsegmental generalized vitiligo. Br J Dermatol 2020; 183(1): 167-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.18890] [PMID: 31975367]
[144]
Percivalle S, Piccinno R, Caccialanza M, Forti S. Narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy in childhood vitiligo: evaluation of results in 28 patients. Pediatr Dermatol 2012; 29(2): 160-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1470.2011.01683.x] [PMID: 22329609]
[145]
Zubair R, Hamzavi IH. Phototherapy for Vitiligo. Dermatol Clin 2020; 38(1): 55-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2019.08.005] [PMID: 31753192]
[146]
Bae JM, Jung HM, Hong BY, et al. Phototherapy for vitiligo: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Dermatol 2017; 153(7): 666-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.0002] [PMID: 28355423]
[147]
Xiao BH, Wu Y, Sun Y, Chen HD, Gao XH. Treatment of vitiligo with NB-UVB: A systematic review. J Dermatolog Treat 2015; 26(4): 340-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/09546634.2014.952610] [PMID: 25102894]
[148]
Dillon AB, Sideris A, Hadi A, Elbuluk N. Advances in Vitiligo: An Update on Medical and Surgical Treatments. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 2017; 10(1): 15-28.
[149]
Gauthier Y, Almasi-Nasrabadi M, Cario-André M, Pain C, Rakhshan A, Ghalamkarpour F. Tacrolimus (FK506) ointment combined with Nb-UVB could activate both hair follicle (HF) and dermal melanocyte precursors in vitiligo: the first histopathological and clinical study. Arch Dermatol Res 2021; 313(5): 383-8.
[150]
Gianfaldoni S, Tchernev G, Wollina U, et al. Vitiligo in children: What’s new in treatment? Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2018; 6(1): 221-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2018.060] [PMID: 29484028]
[151]
Kim WI, Kim S, Lee SH, Cho MK. The efficacy of fractional carbon dioxide laser combined with narrow-band ultraviolet B phototherapy for non-segmental vitiligo: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lasers Med Sci 2020; 36(1): 165-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10103-020-03069-0]
[152]
Bacigalupi RM, Postolova A, Davis RS. Evidence-based, non-surgical treatments for vitiligo: a review. Am J Clin Dermatol 2012; 13(4): 217-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11630540-000000000-00000] [PMID: 22423621]
[153]
Hong SB, Park HH, Lee MH. Short-term effects of 308-nm xenon-chloride excimer laser and narrow-band ultraviolet B in the treatment of vitiligo: a comparative study. J Korean Med Sci 2005; 20(2): 273-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2005.20.2.273] [PMID: 15832000]
[154]
Le Duff F, Fontas E, Giacchero D, et al. 308-nm excimer lamp vs. 308-nm excimer laser for treating vitiligo: a randomized study. Br J Dermatol 2010; 163(1): 188-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09778.x] [PMID: 20346025]
[155]
Majid I, Imran S. Excimer light therapy in childhood segmental vitiligo: Early treatment gives better results. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 2020; 33(3): e13408.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dth.13408] [PMID: 32304121]
[156]
Juntongjin P, Toncharoenphong N. Effectiveness of a combined 308-nm excimer lamp and topical mid-potent steroid treatment for facial vitiligo: a preliminary, randomized double-blinded controlled study. Lasers Med Sci 2020; 35: 2023-9.
[157]
Silpa-Archa N, Lim HW, Wongpraparut C. Excimer laser in vitiligo: where there is light, there is hope. Br J Dermatol 2019; 181(1): 21-.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.18101]
[158]
Ezzedine K, Whitton M, Pinart M. Interventions for Vitiligo. JAMA 2016; 316(16): 1708-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.12399] [PMID: 27784078]
[159]
Dalla A, Parsad D, Vinay K, Thakur V, Sendhil Kumaran M. A prospective study to assess the efficacy of various surgical modalities in treatment of stable vitiligo patches over resistant sites. Int J Dermatol 2020; 59(7): 837-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijd.14924] [PMID: 32386068]
[160]
Ghafourian A, Ghafourian S, Sadeghifard N, et al. Vitiligo: symptoms, pathogenesis and treatment. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2014; 27(4): 485-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/039463201402700403] [PMID: 25572727]
[161]
Garza-Mayers AC, Kroshinsky D. Low-dose methotrexate for vitiligo. J Drugs Dermatol 2017; 16(7): 705-6.
[PMID: 28697225]
[162]
Konstantinova VA, Olisova OY, Gladko VV, Burova EP. Vitiligo - New treatment approach. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2019; 12: 911-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CCID.S229175] [PMID: 31908514]
[163]
Daniel BS, Wittal R. Vitiligo treatment update. Australas J Dermatol 2015; 56(2): 85-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ajd.12256] [PMID: 25495880]
[164]
Mercuri SR, Vollono L, Paolino G. The usefulness of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) for the treatment of vitiligo: State of the art and review. Drug Des Devel Ther 2020; 14: 1749-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S239912] [PMID: 32440100]
[165]
Nowroozpoor Dailami K, Hosseini A, Rahmatpour Rokni G, et al. Efficacy of topical latanoprost in the treatment of eyelid vitiligo: A randomized, double-blind clinical trial study. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 2020; 33(1): e13175.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dth.13175] [PMID: 31758835]
[166]
Anbar TS, El-Ammawi TS, Abdel-Rahman AT, Hanna MR. The effect of latanoprost on vitiligo: a preliminary comparative study. Int J Dermatol 2015; 54(5): 587-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijd.12631] [PMID: 25545321]
[167]
Ruiz-Argüelles A, García-Carrasco M, Jimenez-Brito G, et al. Treatment of vitiligo with a chimeric monoclonal antibody to CD20: a pilot study. Clin Exp Immunol 2013; 174(2): 229-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cei.12168] [PMID: 23815517]
[168]
Relke N, Gooderham M. The use of Janus kinase inhibitors in vitiligo: A review of the literature. J Cutan Med Surg 2019; 23(3): 298-306. [R].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1203475419833609] [PMID: 30902022]
[169]
Craiglow BG, King BA. Tofacitinib citrate for the treatment of vitiligo: A pathogenesis-directed therapy. JAMA Dermatol 2015; 151(10): 1110-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2015.1520] [PMID: 26107994]
[170]
Mumford BP, Gibson A, Chong AH. Repigmentation of vitiligo with oral baricitinib. Australas J Dermatol 2020; 61(4): 374-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ajd.13348]
[171]
Olamiju B, Craiglow BG. Tofacitinib cream plus narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy for segmental vitiligo in a child. Pediatr Dermatol 2020; 37(4): 754-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pde.14159]
[172]
McKesey J, Pandya AG. A pilot study of 2% tofacitinib cream with narrowband ultraviolet B for the treatment of facial vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol 2019; 81(2): 646-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2019.04.032] [PMID: 31009664]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
41
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy